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P: Ly SCRARER, °M:A:, PH.D.” EIR:S: Ere

SECRETARY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON

ILLUSTRATED WITH
Seventy-two Colowred Plates and Sixteen Hundred Engravings
BY

W. KUHNERT, F. SPECHT, P. J. SMIT, G. MUTZEL, A. T. ELWES, J. WOLF,
GAMBIER BOLTON, F.Z8.; AND MANY OTHERS

VOL. EV.

SHC TTON. VelLink

LONDON
FREDERICK WARNE & CO.
AND NEW YORK

1895

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MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS EDINBURGH

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CHAPTER XIV.—HeErons, Srorks, AND Ipises,—Order Herodiones.

~ . . ¥ . . .
Characteristics of the Group—The Heron Tribe (Family Ardeidw)—True Herons (Ardea)

—Great White Heron—Little Egret—Other Species—Night Herons (Nycticorax)—
Little Bittern (Ardetta) — Bitterns (Botaurus) — Boat-Billed Heron (Canchroma) —
Whale-Headed Stork (Family Balenicipitide)—Hammer- Head (Family Scopide)
—The Stork Tribe (Family Ciconiide)— True Storks (Ciconia)— Maguari Stork
(Dissura) — White - Bellied Stork (Abdimia)—Jabirus or Giant Storks (Mycteria)
— Adjutant or Marabou Storks (Leptoptilus)—Shell -Storks (Anastomus) — Wood
Storks (Tantalus and Pseudotantalus)—Ibises and Spoonbills (Family Plataleidw)
—Ihbises (Ibis, etc.) —Spoonbills (Platalea)

CHAPTER XV.—Framincors, Ducks, AND SCREAMERS,—Orders Odontogloss?,
Anseres, and Palamedece.

Common Characters of the Three Groups.—The Flamingoes (Order Odontoglossi, Family

Phenicopteride) —'True Flamingoes (Phenicopterus) — Short - Legged Flamingoes
(Palelodus)—The Duck Tribe (Order Anseres, Family Anatide)—Spur-Winged Geese
(Plectropterus)—Half-Webbed Geese (Anseranas)—Cereopsis Goose (Cereopsis) — New
Zealand Goose (Cnremiornis)—True Geese (Anser)—Their Habits—Brent or Sea-
Geese (Bernicla) — Northern Species — Habits — Southern Species—Egyptian and
Knob - Winged Geese (Chenalopex)— The Swans (Cygnus) — Whistling Swans —
Bewick’s Swan—American Swans—Mute Swan—Black-Necked Swan—Black Swan
—Fossil Swans and Geese —Comb-Ducks (Sareidiornis) — Cotton - Teal (Nettapus)
—Tree- Ducks or Whistling Teal (Dendrocygna)—Sheldrakes (Tadorna)—Common
Sheldrake—Ruddy Sheldrake—The True Ducks (Anas)—Mallard— Dusky Duck—
Gadwall—Habits of Ducks—Shoveller-Ducks (Spatula)—Pin-Tailed Ducks (Dafila)
—Teal (Querquedula)—Wigeon (Mareca)—Summer and Mandarin- Ducks (x)—
Pochards and Scaup-Ducks (Fuligula)—Golden-Eye and Buffel-Head (Clangula)
—Harlequin-Duck (Cosmonetta)—Long-Tailed Duck (Harelda)—Eider-Ducks (Som-
ateria)—Their Habits— The Scoters ((Edemia) —Stiff-Tailed Ducks (Hrismatura)
—The Mergansers (Mergus)— Their Habits— The Screamers (Order Palamedee,
Family Palamedeide),

CHAPTER XVI.—THE PIGEONS AND Sanp-GrovusE,—Order Columbe.

Characteristics of Pigeons—Green, Painted, and Fruit-Pigeons (Family Treronidw)—Wedge-

Tailed Green Pigeons (Sphenocercus)—Other Genera (Vinago, Crocopus, etc.)— Painted
Pigeons (Ptilopus, etc.)—Wart-Pigeons (Alectrenas) and their Allies-—Fruit- Pigeons
(Carpophaga, ete.)—Wood, Long-Tailed and, Passenger—Pigeons (Family Columbide)
—Rock- Dove and Allies (Columba)—Stock-Dove — Wood-Pigeon — Long - Tailed
Pigeons (Turacena)—Cuckoo- Pigeons (Macropygia)—Allied Genera—Passenger- Pigeon

PAGE

289

320

vi CONTENTS

PAGE
(Ectopistes) —The Ground- Pigeons (Family Peristeride)—Mourning Doves (Zenaidura,
ete.) —Galapagos Pigeon (Nesopelia)—White-Winged Doves (Melopelia) —Turtle- Doves
(Turtur)—Allied American Genera (Columbula, etc.)—Cinnamon-Dove (Haplopelia)—
Blood-Breasted Dove (Phlogwnas)—Wonga-Wonga Dove (Leucosarcia)—Blue-Bearded
Cuban Dove (Sturnenas)—Cape Dove (4ina)—African Ground-Dove (Chalcopelia)
— Bronze - Winged Doves (Chalcoptera) — Australian Ground - Doves (Phaps) —
Harlequin - Dove (Histriophaps) — Peneilled Doves (Geophaps) — Plumed Bronze-
Winged Dove (Lophophaps) — Crested Bronze - Wing (Ocyphaps)— Nicobar Pigeon
(Calenas) — Crowned Pigeons (Family Gouride) — Tooth - Billed Pigeon (Family
Didunculide)— Dodo and Solitaire (Family Didide)— The Sand - Grouse (Family
Pteroclidv) — Pallas’s Sand - Grouse (Syrrhaptes) — Black - Bellied Sand - Grouse
(Pterocles)—Pin-Tailed Sand-Grouse (Pteroclurus)—Common Sand-Grouse, 5 otog

CHAPTER XVIL—Tue Game-Brrps AND Ratts,—Orders Gallinw and Fulicarie.

Characteristics of Game-Birds—Grouse and Ptarmigan (Family Tetraonidw)—True Grouse
and Ptarmigan (Lagopus)—Red Grouse— Willow Grouse — Black-Game (Lyrurus)
—Capercaillie (Tetrao)—American Grouse (Canachites)—Other Genera—Prairie-Hens
(Tympanuchus)—Sage Grouse (Centrocercus)—Sharp-Tailed Grouse (Pediocetes)—Rutted
Grouse (Bonasw)—Hazel-Hens (Tetrastes)—Partridges, Pheasants, Turkeys, and Guinea-
Fowls (Family Phasianidw) — Snow - Partridges and Snow- Cocks (Lerwa and
Tetrogallus)—Red-Legged Partridges (Caccabis)—Bonham’s Partridge (Ammoperdix)
—Francolins (Francolinus)—True Partridges (Perdix)—Allied Genera—Tree-Partridges
(Arboricola) — Wood - Partridges (Caloperdiz, etc.) — Quails (Cotwrniz) — Bamboo-
Partridges (Bambusicola)—Spur-Fowl (Galloperdix) — Blood-Pheasants (Ophrysia)—
Monals (Lophophorus)— Fire-Backed Pheasants (Acomus)—Bulwer’s Pheasant (Lobio-
phasis) —Eared Pheasants (Crossoptilum)— Kalij Pheasants (Genneus) — Koklass
Pheasants (Pucrasia)—True Pheasants (Phasianus)— Golden and Amherst’s Pheasants
(Chrysolophus) —- Game-Fowls (Gallus) — Peacock-Pheasants (Polyplectrum) — Argus
Pheasants (Argusianus)—Reinhard’s Argus (Reinhardius)—Peatowl (Pavo)—Guinea-
Fowls (Numida, ete.) — Vulture - like Guinea-Fowl (Acryllium) — Turkeys (Meleagris)
—American Partridges and Quails (Odontophorinw)—The Megapodes and Brush-
Turkeys (Family Megapodiide)—Megapodes (Megapodius)—Brush-Turkeys (Talegallus,
ete.)— Maleo (Megacephalum)—Curassows and Guans (Family Cracida)— Curassows
(Crax)—Mituas (Nothocrax) — Pauxi Curassow (Pauxis)—Derbian Guan (Oreophasis)
—Guans (Penelope, etc.) —'The Hoatzin (Family Opisthocomide)—'The Rail Tribe
(Order Fulicariw) — True Rails (Family Rallide, Genus Rallus)— Weka Rails
(Ocydromus)—Corncrake and Carolina Rails (Crex)— Pigmy Rails (Corethrura)—
Water-Hens (Tribonyx, Gallinula, etc.) —Gallinules and Coots (Porphyrio and Fulica)
—The Finfeet (Family Heliornithide), . ; : : ; é . 393

CHAPTER XVIII.—TuHeE Bustarps, THICKNEES, AND CRANES,—Order A lectorides.

Characters of the Group—The Bustard Tribe (Family Otidide)—True Bustards (Otis)—
Little Bustard —- Long-Beaked Bustards (Hupodotis)—Rufted Bustards (Hubara)—
Florican (Sypheotides) — The 'Thicknees (Family (dicnemidw)— The Seriemas
(Family Cariamide) —'The Trumpeters (Family Psophiidw)—The Cranes (Family
Gruide)—True Cranes (Grus)—Common Crane—Sarus Crane—White Crane—Other
Species — Crowned Cranes (Balearica)—The Courlans (Family Aramide) — The
Kagus (Family Rhinochetide)—The Sun-Bittern (Family Eurypygide), : . 451

CHAPTER XIX.—TueE Piovers, SAnpPIPERS, SNIPE, JACANAS, AND GULLS,—
Orders Limicole and Gavie.
Characteristics of the Two Groups—Distinctions of the Plover Tribe—Pratincoles and
Coursers (Family Cursoriide) — Pratincoles (Glareola) — Cream-Coloured Courser

CONTENTS Vil

(Cursorius) — Black-Backed Courser (Pluvianus)— The Plover Tribe (Family ao
Charadriide)— Ringed Plover (Agialitis) — Sand Plovers (gialophilus) — True
Plovers and Dotterels (Charadrius) —Lapwings—Four-Toed Lapwings (Vanellus)
—Three-Toed Lapwings (Hoplopterus) — Wattled Lapwings (Lobivanellus) — Stilts
(Himantopus) — Avocets (Recurvirostra) — Oyster-Catchers (Hematopus) — Curlews

and Whimbrels (Numenzus)— Phalaropes (Phalaropus)— Hard-Billed Sandpipers

and Ruffs (Totanus) — Godwits (Limosa) — Snipe-Beaked Sandpipers (Hreuwnetes)
—Turnstones (Strepsilas)—Cleft-Footed Sandpipers (Tringa)—Sanderling (Calidris)
—Painted Snipe (Rhynchea) — Woodcock and Snipe (Scolopaa)— Jacanas and
Water - Pheasants (Family Parride) — Sheath-Bills (Family Chionidide) — Seed-
Snipe (Family Thinocoride)— The Gull Tribe (Order Gaviw)—Terns, Skimmers,

and Gulls (Family Laride)—Terns (Hydrocheiidon and Sterna)—Noddies (A nous)—
Skimmers (Rhynchops) — Fork-Tailed Gulls (Yema) — Ross’s Gull (Rhodostethia)

Typical Gulls (Larus)—Kittiwakes (Rissa)—Ivory Gull (Pagophila)—The Skuas
(Family Stercorariide), . - ; : : : : : . 470

CHAPTER XX.—THE TuBr-Nosep Birps, Divina Birps, and PENGUINS,—
Orders Tubinares, Pygopodes, and Impeinnes.

Characteristics of the Tube-Nosed Birds — The Albatrosses (Family Diomedeide) — The
Petrels (Family Procellarvide)—Giant Petrel (Ossifraga)—Fulmar Petrel (fulmarus)
—Allied Genera— Shearwaters (Puffinus) — Capped Petrel and Bulwer’s Petrel
(Estrelata and Bulweria)—Cape Petrel (Daption)—Dove-Petrels (Prion)—Storm-
Petrels (Procellaria)—Allied Petrels—Wilson’s Petrel (Oceanites)—The Diving Petrel
(Pelecanoides) — The Diving Birds (Order Pygopodes)—The Auks (Fanuly <Aleide)
—True Auks (Alcea) — Great Auk—Razorbill — Guillemots (Uria) — Short-Billed
Guillemots (Brachyrhamphus)— Little Auk (Mergulus)—Pacifie Pigmy Auks (S7no-
rhynchus, ete.)—Puftins (Fratercula)—The Divers (Family Colymbidw)—The Grebes
(Family Podieipedide)-— Typical Grebes (Podicipes) — Thick-Billed Grebes (Pod-
ilymbus)—The Penguins (Order Impennes)—The Genera and Habits of the Spheniscida, — 519

CHAPTER XXI.—Tue Tinamus, Fuicutiess Birps, Erc,—Groups Crypturi,

Stereornithes, Ratite, Odontornithes, and Saurure.

Characters and Genera of the Tinamus (Order Crypturi, Family Tinamide)— Extinct
Patagonian Flightless Birds (Group Stereornithes)—The Flightless or Ostrich-Like
Birds (Subclass Ratitw)— The Ostriches (Family Struthionide)—Their Distribution
and Habits-—Capture and Domestication—-The Rheas or American Ostriches (Family
Rheide)—The Cassowaries and Emeus (Family Casuariida)—Cassowarties (Caswarius)—
Emeus (Dromeus) — Allied Extinct Birds —The Kiwis (Family Apterygide)—
The Extinct Moas (Family Déinornithide) — The Epyornithide —'Toothed-Birds
(Group Odontornithes)—Lizard-Tailed Birds (Subclass Saurure, Genus Archwopteryr) . 55]

INDEX To FourrH Vonumr, comprising Sections VII. and VIIL., : 2 5 ee Dini

LIST GF ILLUSTRABION:

COLOURED PEAGkEs

GOLDEN PHEASANTS,

Nicut Heron anp BoaTBILy,

Wiup Duck, :
FLoricAN AND MACQUEEN’S BUSTARD,
East AFRICAN BALEARIC CRANE,
GIANT PENGUINS,

OSTRICHES,

CHINESE PHEASANTS IN COVERT,
Group OF BrITISH GULLS AND TERNS,

Taye

Storks Assembling tor Migration,

Cannon-Bone of Wood-Stork,

Furcula of Heron, :

Goliath Heron in Bieeaiee Plumage,

Grey Herons and their Nest,

Great White Heron,

Little Eeret, ; :

Common Bittern in Various Postures,
30at-Billed Heron, ,

Perrier leads and their Nest,

Fureula of Stork,

White Stork,

W hite-Bellied Stork,

African Adjutant, ;

West-African Wood-Stork,

Head of Bernier’s Ibis,

The Sacred Ibis,

White Spoonbill,

Tibia of Flamingo,

European Flamingoes,

Cannon-Bone of Duck,

Spur-Winged Goose,

White-Fronted Goose,

Frontispiece
Facing page 298

Upland Geese,

344

PAGE
333
334
336
338
342
343
346
304
357
308
359
361
363

364
365
368
369
370
371
374

378
381

LUISTAOF TELUS LRA LIONS

Blue-Bearded Cuban Doves,

Crested and Common Bronze - W eel

Doves, .
Nicobar Pigeons, :
Albertis’ Crowned Pigeon,
Tooth-Billed Pigeon,
The Dodo, :
A Flock of Pin-Tailed Sande Grdfise,
Ring-Dove on Nest,

Vulture-Like Guinea-Fowl] on the Gren

Ptarmigan in Winter Dress,
Ptarmigan in Summer Dress,
Spitzbergen Ptarmigan, ;
Willow-Grouse in Summer Dress,
Willow-Grouse in Winter Dress,
Black-Game at Home,
Black-Game in the Snow. .
Hybrid Capercaillie,

Prairie- Hens,

Ruffed Grouse,

French Partridges,

A Covey of Grey Parone
Red-Crested Wood-Partridges,
Common Quail,

Crimson Tragopan,

Mantchurian Eared Pheasant
Horsfield’s Pheasant,

Silver Pheasant, :
A Bouquet of Common ethoncennr
Amherst’s Pheasant,

Argus Pheasant Displaying,
Peacock, :

Crested and Common Guinea Fowl
Vulture-Like Guinea-Fowl Perching
Group of Guinea-Fowl,

Common Turkey,

Californian Quail, .

Black-Throated Crested @unil:
Australian Brush-Turkeys,
Celebean Maleo,

Crested Curassows,

Derbian Guan,

Carolina Rails,

Mortier’s Water-Hen,

Common Coot,

Senegal Finfoot,

Group of Bustarde ;

Little Bustard in Breeding Bimnaee
Arabian Bustard,

Common Thicknee,

Brazilian Seriema, .

Trumpeter,

Common Crane,

Sun-Bittern,

PAGE

382

384
385
386
387
388
391
392
393
394
395
397
398
399
400
401
402
404
405
410
A412
414
415
418
422,
423
424
426
428
430
432
433
434
435
435
436
437
439
440
442
443
446
448
449
450
451
454.
456
459
461
462
465
469

|
|

Common Pratincole,

Black-Backed Courser,

Ringed Plover,

Common Lapwing

Egyptian Spur- Eyed taped
Head of Chilian Stilt,

Avocets,

Common Oyster- Guicher,

Common Curlew,

Grey Phalarope,

Rutts and Reeves,

Bar-Tailed Godwit,

Common Turnstone,

Knot Sandpiper,

Woodcock in Covert,

Woodcock and Nest,

Common Snipe,

A Family of Wilson’s Suite

Brazilian Jacana,

Common Sheath-Bill,

Latreille’s Seed-Snipe, :

Young Gulls covered with Down,

Head of Broad-Billed Tern,

Common Tern,

Black Skimmer,

Black-Headed Gull,

Common Gull,

Herring-Gull,

Lesser Black-Backed Gull,

Kittiwakes Nesting,

Pomatorhine Skua,

Albatrosses Nesting, .

The Giant Petrel,

Fulmar Petrels,

Cape Petrels Swimming,

Storm-Petrels on the Waves,

Great Auk,

Common Guillemots,

Little Auks, :

Head of Tufted Auk,

Knob-Billed Auks,

Head of Whiskered Puttin,
Yommon Puttin,

Great Northern Diver,

Haunt of the Black- Tampated me er,

Crested Grebe,

Metatarsal Bone of Peneaine

Rock-Hopper Penguins,

Group of Black-Footed Penguins,

Humboldt’s Penguin,

Great Tinamu, or Martineta,

Pentland’s Tinamu,

Skull of Giant Flghtless Patagonian

Bird,

mn or om

0 OF oo BD tM BO hb

Breast-Bone ot a Ratite Bird,
Ostriches Feeding, .

Head of Common Rhea,

Head of Long-Billed Rhea,
Australian Cassowary,

Skull of Austrahan Cassowary,

LIST OR ILL OGSIICATIONS

PAGE
556
Dow
560
561
564
565

Emeu and Chicks, .
‘meu Resti
Emeu Resting,

Kiwi Feeding, ;
Skeleton of Short-Legged Moa,
Leg-Bones of Short-Legged Moa,
Skeleton of Lizard-Tailed Bird,

PAGE
567
568
571
572

~—6

Hille

576

SHAPTER AAV:

Herons, SToRKs, AND IpisEs,—Order HERODIONES.

STORKS ASSEMBLING FOR MIGRATION.

Agreeing with the members of the preceding order in their bridged palates,
the absence of basipterygoid processes on the rostrum of the skull, the tufted
oil-gland, and the presence of a downy stage in the helpless young, the herons and
their allies the storks and ibises differ very markedly in general appearance, and
present several important distinctive features. In the first place, their imbs—
especially the metatarsal segment—are greatly elongated; and if the toes are
webbed at all, the first toe is not involved. Secondly, the plumage of the
neck, instead of being continuous, has a large bare tract reaching upwards from
the spine. In all, the rather small and slit-like nostrils are placed near the root
of the long, powerful, and generally sharp-pointed beak; but whereas in the

VOL. IV.—19

290 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES.

majority — of the group the hinder end of the mandible is truncated, this is
not the case with the ibises. Mostly birds of considerable size,
the members of this order all have long and powerful wings,
while in habits they are essentially waders and they generally
nest in trees. Externally, herons and storks present a marked
general similarity to cranes; but, as we shall see in the sequel,
the latter differ in the structure of the palate, in their
“precocious” young, and also in the conformation of the
bones of the leg. In the cannon-bone the two outer trochlez

LOWER END OF THE LEFT
CANNON-BONE OF THE
INDIAN WOOD-STORK.

are of nearly equal length.

THE HERON TRIBE.
Family ARDEIDZ.

The members of this family have the body thin and much compressed, the
neck generally long and thin, and the beak straight, narrow, and pointed, with the
grooves in which the nostrils are placed
stopping short of its extremity, and its
cutting-edges serrated at the tip.) On
the chin the feathering generally or always
extends considerably in advance of the line
of the nostrils. The leg is of medium
length, with the front surface of the
metatarsus covered with more or less scute-
like plates, the toes are mostly three, and the
claw of the third one is pectinated on the
inner side. The wings, although large, are
somewhat blunt at the tip, owing to the
second, third, and fourth quills being nearly
equal in length. The short and rounded
tail has either ten or twelve feathers; and
there are bare spaces round the eyes and
on the lores. The presence of a so-called
powder-down patch of crumbly downy
feathers on each side of the rump is

Be et ecu eon absolutely characteristic of the family ; and

there are no bare tracts on the sides of

the neck. The general plumage, which is very variable in colour, is soft and
loose; the feathers on the crown of the head, back, and upper breast being
frequently elongated. Externally the two sexes are chiefly distinguishable by
difference of size. In the skeleton the lower mandible is not produced posteriorly
to its articulation with the skull; and the V-shaped furcula is characterised by
the projection of its median process within the angle, as shown in the figure.
With the exception of the extreme north, herons—of which there are some seventy
species—are met with in all parts of the globe, and at almost all habitable

1 The boat-bill is exceptional in the form of the head and beak.

HERONS. 291

elevations. They are, however, most numerous in tropical and subtropical regions,
where they form the predominating element in the bird-life of swamps and
marshes. A few seem to prefer the sea-coast, others more generally frequent
rivers, While the majority confine themselves to lakes and marshes. Some, again,
are to be met with in the open country, while others are partial to thickets or
woods. Their gait is slow and measured; and their flight of considerable strength,
but uniform, and accompanied by continual flapping of the wings. Many of them
habitually associate in large flocks, and all build in company; their large nests
containing from three to six unspotted whitish or bluish green eggs. Essentially
waders, most members of the family are able to swim to a certain extent; and, like
the other members of the order, the whole of them are carnivorous; fish forming the
greater portion of their diet, although many of the smaller species are large eaters
of insects, and all will devour animals of any kind that they are able to capture.

The common grey heron (Ardea cinerea) is the type of a large
and widely distributed genus, characterised by the long, straight, sub-
conical beak, in which the nostrils are pierced in a groove at the base, and partially
concealed by a membrane. The long and slender legs are naked for some distance
above the ankle-joint; the front of the metatarsus is covered with large scales ;
and the toes, of which the third and fourth are partially joined by a web, are
of moderate length, the third being much shorter than the metatarsus. The wings
are moderate, with the second quill the longest; and the short tail has twelve
feathers of nearly equal length. Formerly strictly preserved in Britain for the
royal sport of hawking, the common heron is in most parts left to look after itself,
although several of its breeding-places are still well protected. Its distinguishing
features are the crest of long blackish feathers depending from the back of the
head; the white forehead and cheeks; the grey hue of the plumage of the upper-
parts, tail, and wings; the black primaries; and the long white feathers covering
the chest, above which the front of the neck is white marked with elongated
bluish grey spots; the under-parts being greyish white with black streaks. The
beak is yellow, the lore yellowish green, the iris yellow, and the legs and toes
greenish yellow, with the claws brown. In total length the heron measures about
3 feet. The female is less brightly coloured and has shorter plumes than the male.
The common heron ranges over the greater part of Europe, although it is not
found in the extreme north, while in the south it is mostly a winter visitant only,
although it breeds on the Lower Danube. Eastwards it ranges through Asia to
China and Japan, and is common in many parts of India and Ceylon; while it has
been recorded from Australia. It also ranges over Africa to the Cape, although
it is doubtful if it breeds in the south of that continent.

Nearly allied to the preceding is the more slender-necked purple heron (A.
purpurea), in which the crown and back of the head, together with the plumes,
are purplish black; the cheeks and sides of the neck fawn with bluish black
streaks; the back and wing-coverts slaty grey; the long feathers on the back
chestnut; the tail grey; the chin pale, and the neck reddish buff; the point
of the shoulder and under wing-coverts chestnut; and the under-parts maroon-
red anteriorly, and a mixture of maroon, grey, and black posteriorly. The beak
and iris are yellow, as is the tibia; while the greater portion of the meta-

True Herons.

292 HERQNSY STORKS, AND TIBISES.

tarsus and feet is brown, the claws being black. A straggler to Britain, the
purple heron is common in Holland and Spain, and ranges over the greater part
of Europe to the southward of Central Germany. To the eastward it ranges from
the Mediterranean to the Indian region, the north of China, and the Philippines,
in such districts as are suitable to its habits, but only breeds in the warmer
regions. Common and resident in Egypt, it appears to be mainly a winter

GOLIATH HERON IN BREEDING PLUMAGE (4 nat. size).

visitor to most other parts of Africa, although it is a permanent inhabitant of
certain marshy districts. The last member of this group of the genus we shall
notice is the goliath heron (A. goliath), of which the total length is about half as
much again as that of the common species. In this splendid bird the crest takes
the form of a number of moderately long pointed feathers. The head and crest,
the point of the shoulder, and the under-parts, with the exception of the white
throat, are reddish chestnut-brown; the sides and back of the neck bright bluish
grey ; the upper-parts a more ashy grey; and the long loose plumes on the front

HERONS.

293
of the neck externally white and internally black, frequently with reddish shaft-
stripes. The iris is yellow, the lore green, the upper mandible black, the lower
mandible greenish yellow at the tip and many-coloured at the base, while the legs

GREY HERONS AND THEIR NEST.

and feet are black. This heron is widely distributed over Africa; and in 1845-46
numerous specimens were obtained by Blyth in the market at Calcutta, since
which date, according to Mr. Hume, there is no definite record of its occurrence in
India, although it may have been seen in Ceylon.

294 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES.

Water of every kind, from the sea-marge to the mountain-stream, forms the
favourite haunt and hunting-ground of the herons; and there the common species
may be seen standing alone and silent, knee-deep in the flood, watching patiently
for a passing fish, with its head drawn back and ready to strike with unerring
aim at a moment's notice. Although the chief food of these birds consists
of fish, all kinds of water-animals, not too large for their capacities, are
captured easily, among them being frogs, snakes, water-voles, young water-fowl,
crustaceans, insects, and worms. ‘The usual time for fishing is early in the
morning and late in the evening, while on moonlight nights the business is con-
tinued till a later hour. In spite of its extreme voraciousness, the heron is not
considered a wholly unwelcome visitor to trout-streams, on account of the number
of voles and coarse fish it destroys. Mostly solitary during the winter, the common
heron assembles together in the early spring for nesting in large numbers; the
“heronry” being generally situated in tall trees, and occupied for generation after
generation. Heronries, like the well-known one at Cressy Hall near Spalding,
have been so often described, that it will be unnecessary to repeat the details here.
It may be observed, however, that the nest, which is of large size, and relatively
flat and wide, is formed of sticks and lined with twigs, fibres, and grass ; and that
the three or four eggs are bluish green in colour. While the hen is sitting, the
male bird takes his stand during his hours of rest on a branch hard by, where he
may be seen maintaining his position in the face of a gale. Both parents take a
part in feeding the young, and after the first brood is able to take care of itself
a second clutch of eggs is laid. In English heronries the nests are commonly built
in oaks, elms, or wych-elms, but in Kashmir the magnificent chunars or plane-
trees are the favourite breeding resorts of these birds. Occasionally the nests are
built on rocky cliffs overgrown with ivy or low shrubs. The alarm-cry of the
heron is the well-known hoarse crank, crank, but in the breeding-season the note
is more prolonged. In Sind, where the common heron is very numerous, it 1s
employed by the natives as a decoy-bird for other water-fowl. “ About every
fisherman’s village,” writes Mr. Hume, “hundreds may be seen perched about on
the boats, on stacks of brushwood thrown into the water, and on poles, perfectly
motionless, and more like stuffed than living birds. The eyelids of all are sewn
up; they dare not move, poor things, and, wherever they are placed for the day,
there they remain immovable. Generally they are lightly tethered by one leg, but
I saw several, perhaps old prisoners, in no way tied.” Occasionally, a bird gets
loose and flies skywards in the usual circling manner, and in such cases they are
never known to return, but wander forth to perish miserably from hunger.

The purple heron is a more nocturnal bird than the common species, approxi-
mating in its habits to the bittern. The goliath heron, according to observations
made by Major E. A. Butler in Natal, does not appear to breed in companies. A
nest seen by this officer “was situated in the centre of an open valley, and placed
on the top of a patch of green sedge beaten down by the wind and rain, and
forming, as it were, a sort of small island, being raised about two feet above the
level of the water. It consisted of a dense mass of dry sedge and reeds lined
with dark-coloured sedge and a species of aquatic creeper, being about two feet
in diameter and very flat on the surface, and exposed to view from all sides.

HERONS. 295

The male bird was sitting, and as we approached raised himself off the nest and
walked slowly away in an erect attitude for a few yards before taking flight.”
The three eggs, although larger, were similar to those of the common species.
Great Very different in appearance to the more typical representatives
White Heron. of the genus is the great white heron (A. alba), which, together with
the numerous smaller forms known as egrets, is characterised by its more slender

os aa re SS es

GREAT WHITE HERON (3 nat. size).

body and limbs, the extremely long neck, less robust bill, the white plumage, and
the beautiful elongated plume-like feathers of the back. On account of these
differences some writers have referred these birds to a separate genus (/1 erodias).
The great white heron is a few inches longer than the common species, and has
the whole plumage of a glistening silvery white; the feathers at the back of the

296 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES.

head are but slightly elongated, but those on the lower part of the front of the
neck attain a considerable length; while the long filament-like feathers of the
back are developed only during the breeding-season. In the latter period the bill
is black, although yellow in the autumn ; the lore is green, the iris yellow, and the
limbs nearly black. An exceedingly rare straggler to Western Europe and the
British Islands, this splendid heron is more common in Spain and the south of
France, while it is abundant in Sicily and along the south-eastern borders of the
Mediterranean. Eastwards it extends through Asia Minor, Turkestan, and the
warmer parts of Asia to Manchuria and Japan; being migratory in the more
northern districts, but resident in India, Burma, ete., where its size is somewhat
smaller. It also occurs during the winter in North Africa; while in Australia and
New Zealand it is replaced by a closely allied form (A. flavirostris), in which the
beak is stated to be yellow at all seasons.

This species feeds on small fish, reptiles, molluscs, and insects. As a rule
silent, it leaves its feeding-ground early in the evening to seek a roosting-place
among tall trees; and in Ceylon and India breeds in company with spoonbills,
common herons, and other waders in similar situations. The nest is described as
being remarkably flat, with scarcely any hollow for the reception of the three or
four greenish eggs. Writing of the New Zealand species, Sir W. L. Buller observes
that “it is very interesting to watch this stately bird stalking about in its haunts, or
fishing in the shallow water, its snow-white plumage rendering it a very conspicuous
object. I have always found it very shy and difficult to approach, the slightest
sound exciting its suspicion, and making it take wing It flies high and in wide
circles, the wings forming slow and regular flappings, the head bemg drawn in
upon the shoulders, and the legs trailing behind.” In New Zealand the white
heron breeds in several places near the sea in company with the white-throated

cormorant; upwards of twenty-five nests having been counted in one of these
haunts. When this species breeds in association with the common heron, it usually
occupies the middle region of the trees, of which the tops are occupied by the
herons, while the lower boughs may be tenanted by night-herons.

The little egret (A. garzetta), which is one of the rarest stragglers
to Britain, may be taken as a well-known example of small white
herons, collectively known as egrets. The male bird, which measures about 25
inches in length, during sprmg and summer has the whole plumage pure white,

Little Egret.

with a crest of two long, narrow feathers, some elongated plumes on the lower
part of the front of the neck, and the filament-like feathers of the back greatly
developed. The beak is black, the lore lavender, the iris varying from yellow to
pale lavender, and the legs mostly black, although yellowish interiorly. The
winter dress lacks the crest and the plumes on the back. In Southern and South-
Eastern Europe this egret is a common species; and it ranges thence through Asia
Minor and Persia to India, China, and Japan; while it occurs locally throughout
Africa, and has been obtained from Northern Australia. The little egret nests in
bushes and trees in the neighbourhood of swamps, in company with the other
waders; the nest being a platform-like structure of sticks intermingled with a
few reeds, upon which are laid from three to six bluish green egos. The bird
differs from the white heron in being generally very noisy. Both this and the

HERONS. 2

preceding species occur in great numbers on the inland waters of Sind; and both,
like the common heron, are kept in confinement by the fishermen. Mr. Hume says
that a single boat of about twenty feet in length will contain “a man and _ his
wife, an old man, some relatives, six children, six or eight herons (grey and white),
a couple of cormorants, a kid, a dog, and otter-spears, nets, lines, hooks, and the
like, of all descriptions.”

LITTLE EGRET (} nat. size).

Among other species, brief reference must be made to the beautiful
buff-backed heron (A. bubulcus)', which is so common along the
banks of the Nile, and is frequently pointed out to tourists as the sacred ibis.
During the breeding-season this bird has the plumage of the head, neck, and breast,
rufous buff, and some long plumes on the back also of the same tint; the remainder
being white, with a tinge of creamy on the wing-coverts. The beak is reddish at
the base, and yellow at the tip; the eye and lore are golden pink; and the limbs
yellowish red. This bird always displays great partiality for cultivated grounds,
feeding not only upon frogs and locusts, but likewise on worms and larve turned
up by the plough, as well as on ticks from the backs of cattle,
habit it is frequently termed the cattle-egret. The squacco heron (A. ralloides) is

Other Species.

from which

1 Sometimes referred to a distinct genus Bubuleus.

298 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES.

a still smaller species, measuring only 19 inches in length; and is of special interest
as forming a connecting link between the others members of the genus and the
night-herons. Its distinctive features are the great length of the beak, and the
presence of a mane-like crest extending from the back of the head all down the
neck. In the full plumage the feathers on the top of the head are yellowish
brown, with dark streaks; those of the crest are white, with black borders; the
sides of the head and neck are reddish buff; the interscapulars and long hair-like
feathers of the back pale reddish brown; and the remainder of the plumage white.
The beak is blue at the base and black at the tip; the lore green; and the legs are
yellowish green, with black claws. Essentially a South European and African
form, the squacco ranges in summer over the more northern parts of the continent,
and has been taken on a considerable number of occasions in the British Islands.

The night-herons, of which the European species (Vycticorax
griseus) is the best known, are comparatively small birds, taking
their name from their habit of spending the day in sleep and waking up in the
evening to pass the greater part of the night in searching for food. They are
distinguished by the relatively short beak being very thick at the base and
shghtly bent down at the tip; by the moderately long and stout legs, in which
a portion of the tibia is naked, and the metatarsus is longer than the third toe;
the very broad wings; and also by the plumage, with the exception of some three
thread-like plumes from the back of the head being smoother and more compact
than in the true herons. The scutes on the front of the metatarsus are six-sided,
and the tail has twelve feathers. In the adult of the common species, the crown
of the head, nape, upper back, and shoulders are blackish green, the remainder
of the upper-parts and the sides of the neck ashy grey; the under-parts
pale straw-colour; and the head plumes (which in old birds may be increased
above the ordinary three) pure white. The iris is a fine purple-red, the beak
black with a yellow base, the lore green, and the foot greenish yellow. In
the young bird the head plumes are absent, the general colour of the upper
plumage is brown with longitudinal rusty yellow and yellowish white flecks,
while the under-parts have a whitish, and the neck a yellow ground with brown
markings; both the iris and beak being brown. In total length the night-heron
measures about 23 inches.

Night-Herons.

The genus has an almost world-wide distribution, being found in regions as
remote from one another as Britain and New Zealand; and the common European
species has likewise a very wide range. In Northern Europe the latter is a
comparatively rare visitor, and it is said to be becoming less numerous in the north
of Germany and Holland, where it breeds; but it is abundant in Spain, Italy, and
the Danubian provinces. Thence it extends eastwards through Palestine to India,
Burma, China, and Japan, as well as the Malayan Islands; while it ranges
throughout Africa, and is represented in North America by a rather larger race,
which in South America passes into a darker variety. The habitat of the night-
heron is generally in thickly-wooded districts, and by preference in the near
neighbourhood of swamps; although not unfrequently these birds inhabit groves
at considerable distances from water, from whence they make long nocturnal
flights to their fishing-grounds. Except during the breeding-season, they seldom,

NIGHT HERON, AND® BOATBILE

7, iy
Ti ae
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hall

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i

BITTERNS. 299

unless disturbed, rouse themselves from their slumbers in the daytime; but when
the young are hatched, the parents are compelled to go abroad in search of food
during the daylight hours. Perching with its neck resting on its shoulders, the
night-heron when disturbed from its slumbers flies but a short distance, and again
settles. When on the wing, the head is drawn in between the shoulders, and the
legs stretched out behind; the flight being slow and flapping, and the course of the
bird indicated in the darkness by the utterance from time to time of a characteristic
hoarse croak. In Europe the breeding-season lasts from May to July; the nests
being generally placed in bushes or low trees near swamps, but at other times in
groves which may be also tenanted by other members of the order, and rarely
among reeds. Large numbers of birds associate in these breeding-places; and
when the young are hatched, the noise made by the birds as darkness comes on is
described as deafening. ‘The nests in some places are made of rice-straw, and are
remarkable for their size and solid structure ; and the pale greenish blue eggs vary
from three to five in number. The food of these birds comprises aquatic insects,
worms, molluscs, frogs, and small fish.

Omitting mention of some important genera, brief reference must
be made to the little bittern (Ardella minuta), as the representative
of a small genus in some respects connecting the night-herons with the true
bitterns. These birds are much smaller than the night-heron, measuring only 13
inches in length, while agreeing with the foregoing genera in having the second
quill of the wing the longest (although but slightly so), and the third toe shorter
than the metatarsus; they differ in having only ten short feathers in the tail, in
the tibia being feathered nearly to the ankle, and in the greater length of the toes.
The legs are rather short; and the straight, slender, pointed beak is slightly longer
than the head. In the male the plumage of the crown of the head, nape, back,
and shoulders, as well as the primaries and tail-feathers, are shining greenish black :
and the wing-coverts and under-parts tawny buff, marked on the breast and flanks
with black. The beak, lore, and iris are yellow; and the legs and feet greenish
yellow. The smallest member of the heron tribe found in Britain, where it is an
occasional visitor, the little bittern ranges over Southern Europe to Northern
Africa, and extends eastwards to Kashmir and North-Western India. Migrating
to South Africa, it is represented there by a distinct resident species; while in
America its place is taken by a smaller form.

Little Bittern.

Before the drainage of the fens and the general advance of
cultivation, the boom of the bittern was a familiar sound in many
parts of England, but the bird is now only a somewhat rare visitor, although
a nest was taken as late as the year 1868. The common bittern (Botawrus
stellaris) belongs to a genus easily characterised by the great length of the
toes, of which the third is as long as the metatarsus, by the three first quills

Bitterns.

being of nearly equal length and the longest in the wing, and by the short
tail comprising ten soft feathers. The strong beak is rather longer than
the head, somewhat higher than broad, and with the extremity of its upper
mandible slightly curved downwards; the longitudinal slit-like nostrils being
partially covered by a bare membrane. The legs are of medium length,
feathered nearly down to the ankle, and with large scutes on the front of the

300 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES.

metatarsus; while the toes are very une jual length, and the first unusually
elongated. Owing to the equality in length of the first three quills, the somewhat
elongated wings are rounded at their extremities. There is but little difference
2 e . a ae Z . =e .
between the plumage of the young and mature birds. Although inferior in size to
the heron, from which it differs markedly in its much shorter and thicker neck,
larger and plumeless head, and shorter beak, the bittern is a decidedly striking
bird; and its mottled plumage of buff, brown, and black, is adapted to harmonise
with the dead stalks of the reeds and flags among which it habitually skulks. As

COMMON BITTERN IN ITS VARIOUS POSTURES (+ nat. size).

regards coloration, the crown of the head is black with a tinge of bronzy green,
the elongated feathers at the back of the head and nape being barred with black
and buff; the remainder of the body-plumage is characterised by having a buffish
ground variously marked with reddish brown and blackish brown flecks, bars, and
streaks, with a dark stripe from behind the angle of the beak and another down
the front of the throat. The primaries are mingled greyish black and chestnut,
and the tail-feathers reddish brown with black markings. The beak is greenish
yellow, tending to horn-colour at the tip, the lore green, the iris yellow, and the
leg and foot green with pale horn-coloured claws. In length a male bittern may
vary from 28 to 30 inches. The American bittern (B. lentiginosus), which is an
accidental visitor to Britain, differs from the common species, not only by its

BOAT-BILLED HERON. 301

inferior size and more slender limbs, but likewise by the uniformly lead-brown hue
of the primary quills of the wings.

The common bittern, like so many members of the present family, has a wide
geographical distribution, extending all over Europe as far north as latitude 60°,
and even to 64° on the Yenisei, in Asia, and ranging eastwards through Central
Asia to China and Japan. It also occurs in Persia and Northern and Central
India, as well as in Burma; and likewise ranges over the whole of Africa, in
localities suited to its habits. The New World species is found over the greater
part of North America. The bittern is essentially a bird of the swamps,
among the reeds and bulrushes of which it either skulks in the rail-like manner
shown in the central figure of our illustration, or stands erect, as depicted
in the background, when it presents a strange resemblance to a_ pointed
stump. When disturbed in the day among a bed of reeds, it generally rises
within easy shot, and after flapping lazily along for a short distance, once
nore takes to covert. While on the wing, it utters a resounding cry, replaced
during the breeding-season by the hollow boom, from which the bird derives
its name; and in its evening flights the bittern is said to soar in circles to
vast heights. The breeding-season in Europe commences in March and April;
and the nest, which is formed of a mass of reeds and flags, is placed either in
thick covert, or on the marge of a swamp. ‘The four eggs are olive-brown in
colour, but may be tinged with green when fresh laid. Among our ancestors the
bittern was regarded asa favourite dish; and in Landseer’s well-known picture a
bittern figures among the offering sent to the abbot of Bolton Abbey. Instead of
booming, the American species during the breeding-season utters a ery which has
been compared to the sound produced by hitting a stake with a mallet. Writing
of the American bird, Dr. Coues observes that “when the bittern is disturbed at his
meditation, he gives a vigorous spring, croaks at the moment in a manner highly
suggestive of his displeasure, and flies off as fast as he can, though in rather a
loose, lumbering way. For some distance he flaps heavily with dangling legs and
outstretched neck; but when settled on his course he proceeds more smoothly,
with regular, measured wing-beats, the head drawn in closely, and the legs stretched
out behind together like a rudder. He is very easily shot on the wing, dropping
at a touch of even fine shot. When winged, he croaks painfully as he drops, and
no sooner does he touch the ground than he gathers himself in defensive attitude
to resent aggression as best he can. He fights well, and with more spirit and
determination than he might be expected to show. He has a very ugly way of
pointing his resistance with quick thrusts of his spear-like bill, capable of inflicting
no slight wound on an incautious hand. The food of this bird consists of various
kinds of small aquatic animals. In its stomach may be found molluses, crayfish,
frogs, lizards, small snakes, and fishes, as well as insects. Such prey is captured
with great address, by spearing, as the bird walks or wades stealthily along”; the
thrust of the bill being marvellously quick and skilful. It may be added that
in America as well as in the Old World bitterns are to a certain extent migratory.

Boat-Billed The last member of the family to which it will be necessary

Heron. to allude is the remarkable boat-billed heron (Canchroma cochlearia)

of South America, which, while agreeing with the other representatives of

302 HERONS, STORES “AND SiBISIES

the group in essential characters, differs by the broad head, terminating in
the wide and boat-like beak, from which the creature derives its name. The
boat-bill is about the size of a night-heron, and resembles the more typical
members of the family in the pendent plumes at the back of the head, and
the presence of twelve comparatively stiff feathers in the tail. The broad
beak is rounded off in front, where it is somewhat bent down; the legs

BOAT-BILLED HERON (,°, nat. size).

are rather short and feathered to the ankle, with toes of moderate length; the
wings are strong and large, with the fourth quill the longest; and the tail is
short and truncated. ‘The crest is large, and formed by the feathers of the back
of the head and nape, but there are no elongated plumes on the back; the front of
the throat is, however, naked. In colour, the forehead, throat, fore-neck, and
cheeks are white; the lower neck and breast yellowish white; the back clear
grey; the hinder region of the upper part of the neck and the under-parts rusty
reddish brown, passing into black on the sides; and the wing and tail-feathers

WHALE-HEADED STORK. 303
whitish grey. The iris is mostly brown, the beak brown with a yellow border to
the lower mandible, and the leg and foot yellowish.

The savaku, as the bird is called by the natives of South America, frequents
the thick woods borderi ing the Brazilian rivers, where it may be seen either solitary,
or in pairs during the Nee itne geatin These birds are more numerous in the
interior than near the coast; and may be observed either in the low bushes on the
banks or perched on boughs high above the river. Their food consists of various
aquatic creatures, especially worms; but from the conformation of their beak,
which is probably used for grovelling in the mud, it is doubtful if these birds can
catch fish. Practically nothing has been ascertained as to their breeding-habits,
although it is known that the eggs are uniformly white, and very similar in general
appearance to those of a heron.

THE WHALE-HEADED STORK.
Family BALANICIPITIDA.

The extraordinary-looking and gigantic bird known as the whale-headed, or
shoe-billed stork (Baleniceps rex), which is peculiar to certain parts of Africa,
forms the sole representative of a distinct family, whose nearest relationship,
according to Mr. Beddard, appears to be with the herons, and from which family
it may be a highly modified offshoot... While agreeing with the herons in the
presence of powder-down patches on the rump, and the absence of bare tracts on
the sides of the neck, as well as in several internal features, the whale-head is
distinguished by the absence of pectination on the claw of the third toe, and
likewise in the V-shaped furcula having no process jutting forth into the angle.
Apart from these morphological features, the large size of these birds, and their
extraordinary beaks, render them perfectly distinguishable at a glance from all
their allies. The broad and depressed beak, unlike that of the boat-billed heron,
is concave in profile, with a strong ridge down the middle of the upper mandible,
the tip produced into a bold hook, and the cutting-edges highly curved; the
minute nostrils being situated at its base and not placed in a groove. The
lower mandible is covered with a soft, leathery skin for the greater part of its
length, although horny at the tip. The legs are very long, and naked for a
considerable distance above the ankle; and the elongated toes are not webbed.
The long and broad wings have the third and fourth quills the longest; the tail is
of moderate length, with twelve feathers; and there is a short bushy crest at the
back of the head. The prevailing ground-colour of the plumage is a fine ashy
grey, the larger body-feathers being bordered with lighter grey, and the wing and
tail-feathers greyish black. The iris is yellow, the beak horn-colour, and the leg
and foot black. In size this bird comes between the white and the marabou stork,
although much nearer to the latter than the former.

Known to the Arabs as abw markub (father of a shoe), this giant bird is.
restricted to the White Nile and its affluents, and although everywhere rare is
most numerous in the districts of Kitsh and Nuer in Northern Equatoria, where

1 This relationship is not admitted by Professor Newton.

304 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES.

it may be found either singly, in pairs, or in small companies. It always frequents
regions the most remote from human habitations, where it may be seen standing—
sometimes breast-deep—in the water by the side of some tall papyrus stem, and
frequently resting on one leg only. But seldom is this bird seen away from the
neighbourhood of tall reeds, although it sometimes takes its station on a white-ant
hill on the bank, and occasionally resorts to open reaches of the river. When first
disturbed by a boat, it will fly off slowly above the reeds with a great noise, and
again settle; but if roused a second time, it rises high into the air, and will not
again return to its haunt until the danger is past. Its flight is not unlike that of
the marabou stork, but the heavy beak is generally kept resting on the crop. The
only sound it utters is aloud snapping of the beak, in which respect it resembles
the storks. Its principal food is fish, in order to capture which the bird often
stands breast-deep in the stream with its enormous beak lowered to the surface of
the water; while at other times several individuals will combine to drive the fish
towards the shallows by marching in a semicircle through the water, and making a
great flapping of their wings. It has been asserted that these storks will kill and
eat snakes; but it is probable that the statement has arisen from their devouring
the fish known as the bisher (Polypterus), which the natives sometimes term a
water-snake. That dead carcases and carrion are also consumed appears to be well
ascertained. The breeding-season takes place during the rains; the nest being
situated on some slight elevation among the reeds, especially one surrounded on all
sides by water. Here the birds collect a vast quantity of stalks and water-plants,
often soliditied with mud, so as to form an accumulation of about a yard in height.
The eggs, which are small in proportion to the size of the bird, have thick white
shells, which are, however, bluish when first laid, but become brownish as incuba-
tion progresses; they are overlain with a chalky coating. Young taken from the
nest thrive well on a fish diet, and are easily tamed.

THE HAMMER-HEAD.
Family SCOPID2£.

From a structural point of view the small brown African bird, known as the
hammer-head or umbre (Scopus wiibrella), is even more remarkable than the pre-
ceding, since it combines many features common to the herons and storks, and is
accordingly regarded by Mr. Beddard as nearly allied to the common ancestral
stork from which those two groups have sprung. It differs from the herons in the
absence of powder-down patches on the rump, and of pectination in the claw of
the third toe, as well as in having the angle of the furcula without any median
projection; but it resembles them in having the rings of the bronchial tubes
incomplete behind, and closed with membrane. In some other parts of its internal
anatomy it agrees with the herons on the one hand and the storks on the other;
but it differs from all herons except the boat-billed species in the shortness of its
triangular tongue, and thereby resembles the whale-head and the storks, while it
is peculiar in having large bare tracts on the sides of the neck. The hammer-
head measures about 25 inches in total length, and has a somewhat cylindrical

HAMMER-HEAD. 305
body, a short and thick neck, a very large head, and a beak rather longer than the
head, much compressed, straight, and bent down at the tip. The legs and toes are
of medium length, the latter connected at their bases by a web; the wing is broad
and rounded, with its third quill the longest; the tail is moderately long and has
twelve feathers; and the contour-feathers are thick and long, those on the back
and sides of the head being developed into a broad and bushy crest, The

HAMMER-HEADS AND THEIR NEST (} nat. size).

coloration is a uniform umber-brown, generally brighter on the under surface ;
the quills of the wings being shining and darker than the back, while those of the
tail have a broad purplish brown band at the tip, and smaller bars near the root.
The iris is brown, the beak black, and the leg and foot blackish brown or black,
Nowhere abundant, the hammer-head is spread all over Africa, as well as
Madagascar and the south of Arabia; and although generally inhabiting the
plains, in Abyssinia ascends to an elevation of some nine thousand feet in the
mountains. It frequents the neighbourhood of water in wooded districts, and
VOL, IV.—-20

306 HERONS, “SLORLS,. AND IBISES.

appears to be generally found singly or in pairs. Resembling in many of its
general habits the ibises, the hammer-head when passing from lake to lake
flies strongly and ascends high into the air; and is reported to utter a kind of
croaking cry. The most interesting feature connected with this singular bird is,
however, its nest. This is a huge, dome-like structure of sticks, so firmly built
that it will bear the weight of a man, and frequently from a yard and a half to
two yards or more in diameter. Generally placed in a fork of a tree near the
ground, although sometimes in a rocky cleft, the nest has a single entrance
situated on its most concealed side. Internally it contains three chambers—a hall,
a drawing-room, and a sleeping apartment, with entrances so small that the bird .
can only creep in. The sleeping-chamber occupies the highest portion of the nest,
in order to be safe from floods, and in it, upon a bed of water-plants, are laid the
white eggs, which are from three to five in number and are incubated by each
parent in turn. The middle chamber serves for the young when they are too big
for the inner one, while the hall is used as a look-out station. In Angola the nests
of other birds are said to be taken by the hammer-head. The chief food of these
birds appears to consist generally of fish; but in some districts, at least, river-
mussels, frogs, lizards, small snakes, and worms and insects, constitute a portion
of the diet. Although the two members of a pair do not always remain together,
they appear to be associated for life; and at times the two birds, or occasionally
three, will go through a peculiar kind of dance-like performance. Everywhere
these birds are mainly crepuscular, and are but seldom seen in the full daylight.

THE STORK TRIBE.
Family CICONIIDA.

The storks may be distinguished externally from the herons by the absence of
pectination on the inner edge of the claw of the third toe, by the metatarsus being
covered with reticulate scales, by the absence of powder-down patches on the
sides of the rump, and by the feathering on the under surface of the lower
mandible not extending in advance of the line of the nostrils. In the skeleton the
furcula, which is generally U-shaped, is characterised by the absence of any
median projection into its angle. All storks have short triangular tongues,
whereas herons (except the boat-bill) have long ones; and, with the exception of
two genera, they are characterised by the rings of the bronchial tubes being
complete. There are certain other anatomical features, into the consideration of
which it will be unnecessary to enter. As supplemental characters, it may be
mentioned that in all the members of the family the body is plump; the beak in
the form of a long compressed cone, with a sharp point, but may be either turned
up at the extremity, or gaping in the middle; the leg is long, strong, and naked
for a considerable distance above the ankle; the toes are short, and the three front
ones connected by a short basal web; the wings large; and the short and rounded
tail with twelve feathers. The contour-feathers of the head and neck may be
either narrow and elongated, or short and rounded; while in some cases they may
become woolly or hairy, or even, in old age, with horny lance-like tips. The two

STORKS 307

sexes may be distinguished by a difference in size, while the colours of the young
are duller than those of the old birds. Storks, of which there are some twenty
species, have a world-wide distribution; those inhabiting the northern regions of
the globe being migratory. They are all diurnal in their habits, and the only
sound they utter is produced by a sharp snapping of the beak. Extinct genera
carry the family back to the early part of the Miocene period.

The true storks are characterised by their perfectly straight
sharp beaks, in the horny covering of which the nostrils are
perforated, by the webs of the front toes extending to their first joints, and by
the third, fourth, and fifth quills
being of nearly equal length. By
far the best known species is the
white stork (Ciconia alba), in
which the whole of the plumage,
with the exception of the black

True Storks.

greater wing-coverts and quills, is
pure white, the beak being red,
the bare space round the eye
black, the iris brown, and the foot
and leg red, with brown claws.
The whole length varies from 42
to 44 inches. With the exception
of the extreme north, the stork
ranges over the whole of Europe,
although not breeding every-
where, and being merely an

irregular visitor to the British \ ff
Islands. Eastwards its range Bere ey te re

extends through Turkey and

Persia to Central Asia and a great part of India, while in winter the bird
visits Northern Africa in large numbers. In France, where it is much _per-
secuted, it is now only a passing visitor; but it breeds in large numbers in
Holland, Germany, and indeed over the greater part of Central and Eastern
Europe, where it enjoys protection on the part of the inhabitants. The stork
has become thoroughly habituated to human habitations and the presence of
man, by whom it is esteemed, not only on account of its value as a scavenger,
but likewise from its well-known fidelity to its young, which has become pro-
verbial. In Palestine, where they only exceptionally breed, storks make their
appearance at the latter part of March on their northern journey, while in
Holland and Denmark they generally arrive about the middle of April. They
arrive and depart (as shown in the illustration on p. 289) in immense flocks ; and
on their arrival spread themselves over the country in search of food, which
comprises small mammals and birds, reptiles, frogs, insects, ete. In most parts of
Europe the stork generally builds on chimneys, where boxes or other receptacles
for the nest are frequently placed for its accommodation; and as it returns year
after year to the same spot, the nest, which is originally a shallow structure of

308 HBRONS, STORKS, AND TBISES:

sticks, gradually attains a height of several feet. In the absence of buildings,
trees or rocks are, however, adopted for nesting. The eggs, usually from three to five
in number, are pure white. During the breeding-season the birds keep up a constant
clapping noise with their beaks, and this noise not unfrequently betrays their
whereabouts when soaring at such a height as to be quite invisible to the naked

WHITE STORK ($ nat. size).

eye. As an instance of the constancy displayed by the males and females of this
species it is stated that for three years a female which remained during the winter
in Europe, was visited annually by her mate, when both nested as usual. In
the fourth year, however, the male bird also remained with his partner during
the winter, and this continued for three years. Eventually both birds were shot,
when it was discovered that the female had been prevented from migrating by an

STORKS. 309

old wound. On the other hand, there are well-authenticated instances of tame
storks having been mobbed and killed by their fellows, and the same fate is stated
to have overtaken a female stork whose eggs had been replaced by those of a hen,
which in due course were hatched into chickens.

The second European representative of the genus is the black
stork (CL nigra), which is likewise an occasional visitant to England.
In this bird the plumage of the head, neck, and upper-parts is brownish black,
with a variable metallic lustre; the under-parts, from the lower breast, being
white, and the wings and tail lacking the lustre of the contour-feathers. The iris
is reddish brown, the beak blood-red, and the leg and foot carmine. The black
stork, which is a rather smaller bird than its white cousin, inhabits Central and
Southern Europe, occasionally ranging northwards, and is found all over Africa,
while eastwards it extends to China, and, in winter, India. Unlike the white
species, it shuns human habitations as widely as possible, frequenting the most
secluded swamps on the banks of lakes and rivers, and nesting in tall forest trees.

Black Stork.

In Jutland Mr. Elwes describes the nests as being lined with moss, and having a
diameter of some four feet; the four greyish white eggs being deposited in a
shallow cavity in the centre. Writing of the habits of a captive individual of this
species, Montagu observes that the stork does not gorge an eel instantly like the
cormorant; on the contrary, it retires to the margin of the pool, and there disables
its prey by shaking and beating with its bill, before it ventures to swallow it.
I never observed this bird attempt to swim; but it will wade up to the belly, and
occasionally thrust the whole head and neck under water after its prey.”

There are a few other Old World representatives of this genus, but there are
none in North America; while the Maguari stork of South America (Disswra
maguari) and the West African white-necked stork (D. episcopus) are more
generally referred to a distinct genus, characterised by the tail being deeply
forked and its lower coverts stiffened so as to resemble true reetrices.

i Although externally not unlike the black stork in general
White-Bellied S y 8
Sore appearance, the white-bellied stork (Abdimia sphenorhyncha) of

Africa is made the type of a distinct genus, as it differs from the more
typical’ storks in having the rings of the bronchial tubes incomplete behind
and closed with membrane; thus indicating that it is a generalised type
retaining evidence of the original kinship of the family with the herons.
Considerably smaller than the black stork, this species has the head and
neck black, with a purple lustre; the back, wings, and tail black tinged
with green, and the bend of the shoulder and under-parts white. The iris is
brown, the naked space around the eye blue, and that on the throat red, the
beak greenish with a red tip, and the leg and foot brownish grey, except at the
ankle-joint, where it is red. From Dongola in the Sudan, nearly to South Africa,
this stork is found in vast numbers, although it frequents the villages only during
the breeding-season. There, however, it nests but seldom on houses, preferring
trees in the neighbourhood, and in the south generally selecting mimosas. Not
unfrequently it breeds in large companies, as many as thirty nests having been
observed in a single tree. The eggs are rather smaller than those of the white
stork, but vary considerably in form and dimensions. The simbil, as this bird is

310 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES.

called in the Sudan, receives from the natives of that district the same veneration

and protection as is accorded to its white cousin in Holland, while it closely agrees

in its general mode of life.

par raster Giant This group is typically represented by the American jabiru
storks. = (Mycteria americana) of Brazil, but may also be taken to

snclude the saddle-billed jabiru (IL senegalensis) of West Africa, and the

black-necked jabiru (JL australis) of Australia and Southern New Guinea,

WHITE-BELLIED STORK (} nat. size).

although the two latter are frequently referred to a distinct genus, under
the name of Xenorhynchus. These birds are of large size, and easily
recognised by the greatly elongated beak being nearly straight along its upper
border, but curving upwards inferiorly towards the tip, and its cutting-edges
presenting a similar curvature; while at its base it often has a saddle-like
waxy growth. The Jeg is much elongated, with the toes very short; the wing
long and rounded, with the third quill the longest; and the short tail sharply
truncated. In the African and Australian species the upper rings of the

STORKS. 311

bronchial tubes are incomplete behind, as in the white-bellied stork, but in
the third they are complete like those of the true storks, although narrower at
the back than in front. In the American jabiru the head and neck are bare and
black, and the remainder white; but in the African species the feathered head
and neck, the wing-coverts, the shoulders and the tail are black, with a metallic
lustre, while the rest of the plumage, inclusive of the quills, is dazzling white.
In the latter species the iris is yellow, and the beak red at the base, then black
for a short distance, and blood-red in its anterior half, while the fleshy saddle on
the upper-part of its base is variously coloured. The legs are mostly greyish
brown, but the toes are carmine-red. In length the male measures upwards of
59 inches. The saddle-billed jabiru is described as being one of the handsomest of
all the storks when in its native wilds, being especially beautiful during flight, when
the white quills of the wings stand out in marked contrast to their black coverts.
It is found on both the White and Blue Nile to the southward of the 14th parallel
of north latitude, and thence through the Sudan, but it also occurs on both the
east and west coasts. Living in pairs, it frequents sandbanks on the rivers, as
well as the margins of lakes and swamps; but it is so shy, and at the same time
generally so rare, that but little is known of its habits.

Aaintiantion The largest and at the same time by far the ugliest of the
Marabou Stork. storks, are the adjutants or marabous of the Oriental region and
Africa, which apparently derive their military title from their measured walk.
These ungainly birds are primarily distinguished by the presence of a large,
naked, pendulous pouch on the front of the throat, which may measure as
much as 16 inches, and has no connection with the gullet, although probably
communicating with the respiratory organs. They are further characterised
by the large body, thick and naked neck, by the head being either bare or
thinly clad with down, and by the enormous size of the beak, which is very
thick, four-sided, and somewhat wedge-shaped, with a sharp point. The legs
are of great length. The whole plumage is rough and untidy-looking; the large
and rounded wings have the fourth quill the longest; while the moderately
long tail is characterised by the great development of its under-coverts, which
form the well-known marabou or comercolly feathers. Our illustration represents
the African species (Leptoptilus crumeniferus), known to the Arabs as abw sci
(father of the leather bottle), in which the head is reddish flesh-coloured,
sprinkled over with short hair-like feathers. The plumage of the back is a dark
metallic green, while that of the neck and under-parts is pure white; the quills
of the wing and tail being black and lustreless, and the greater wing-coverts
having their outer webs bordered with white. The iris is brown, the beak a dirty
whitish yellow, and the leg and foot black, generally with a superficial coating of
white. The total length of a male is about 63 inches. In India and the Burmese
countries the genus is represented by the great Indian adjutant (LZ. dubius), of
which there is a larger and a smaller race; while the Javan adjutant (Z. yavanicus)
is a smaller Oriental species. Remains of extinct adjutants occur in the Plocene
rocks of the north of India, and probably in the Miocene deposits of France.

1 This is the derivation given by Brehm; but Sir S. Baker says that the name is abw scen, or father of
ithe beak,

312 HERONS, STORKS, AND TBISES.

In India the adjutant is a summer visitant, arriving towards the close of the
hot weather about the end of April or May, and remaining through the rainy
season till October. It is, however, a somewhat local bird, being most common
in Bengal and the north-eastern districts, and well known to all residents in

AFRICAN ADJUTANT (4 nat. size).

Calcutta, where these birds are in the habit of perching in numbers on the
parapets of Government House during the rains. They breed in Burma and
the Malayan countries, a favourite nesting-place being some lofty scarped
limestone rocks called the Nidong Hills on the Attaran River, to the south-east
of Moulmein. On account of their value as scavengers, these birds are protected

SHELL-STORKS. 313
by law in Calcutta and some other Indian cities, nothing seeming to come amiss
to them in the way of food, from the carcase of a large animal to a dead cat,
or from small birds to frogs and fish. Adjutants generally congregate in vast
flocks, although in the neighbourhood of towns solitary birds may often be
observed, either stalking about alone or standing with outspread wings to dry
their plumage, or perched on one leg while asleep on some building or tree.
Their flight, although heavy and flapping, is powerful in the extreme, and they
frequently soar at immense heights in the air, from which they descend to join
the vultures at their feasts. Writing of the arrival of one of these birds at such
a carnival, Sir S. Baker observes that “a pair of long, ungainly legs, hanging
down beneath the enormous wings, now touch the ground, and abu scen has
arrived, and he stalks proudly towards the crowds, pecking his way with his long
bill through the struggling vultures, and swallowing the lion’s share of the repast.”
Inthe Nidong Hills the adjutant, according to Mr. C. T. Bingham, nests in vast
numbers during November and December, and in January the parents may be
seen feeding the young birds on the topmost pinnacles of their almost inaccessible
rocks. The nest is a large mass of sticks and twigs, devoid of lining, and scarcely
any depression in the centre; the number of eggs varying from two to four, and
these being large chalky-white ovals. Occasionally, it is stated, the nests are
placed in trees, and the young birds are thickly covered with fluffy white down.
The shell-storks or shell-ibises as they are often called, of
which there is one African (Anastomus lamelligerus) and one
Indian species (A. oscitans), are much smaller birds than any of the preceding,
from all of which they are at once distinguished by the two mandibles of the
compressed and serrated beak being in the adult in contact at their? two
extremities, but gaping widely in the middle. On account of the second and
third quills being the longest, the large wings are pointed, and the tail is short.
Although the Indian species has a normal plumage, that of the African kind is
remarkable in that the shafts of all the feathers of the throat, under-parts, and
thighs are prolonged into small horny processes at their extremities. In colour
the whole plumage is blackish with green and purple reflections; the iris is red,
the beak yellowish, and the leg and foot black. Young birds lack the horny
plates at the tips of the feathers. In length the African species measures about 26
inches. The latter species is widely distributed over Central and South Afriea,
and is also met with at Mozambique. Like its Indian congener, it feeds almost
exclusively on molluscs, especially Ampullaric, and according to Livingstone
breeds among reeds, although it has also been stated to nest in trees. In the

Shell Storks.

Barotse country the breeding-places are occupied year after year by vast numbers
of these birds, and the natives are accustomed to make a regular harvest of the
young. With regard to the peculiar gaping of the beak, Professor Ball writes
that “this was at one time supposed to be due to attrition of the edges, caused
by the nature of the food upon which the bird is generally believed to subsist.
Jerdon, however, stated that the bill of a young bird which he examined exhibited
the same gaping. This I did not find to be the case with any of the large
members which I saw. The bills were very much smaller than in the adult
birds, were conical in shape, and the edges were in distinct apposition, or slightly

AND IBISES.

7
2

SLORKS

Y
?

HERONS

314

The change does not appear to me to be due to any loss

of material of the bill by attrition, but to a structural bowing or arching of the

”

overlapping, throughout.

mandibles.

agreeing with the other members of the present

general form of the beak, the wood-storks, or wood-

Although
family in the

Wood-Storks.

WEST AFRICAN WOOD-STORK (4 nat. size).

k between the typical storks and the ibises,
the beak thick, long, rounded, tapering, and

curving downwards at the tip; the foot long-toed, with large webs; the wing long

o” link

fo}

and are frequently referred to a separate family. In these birds the neck is of
the head large ;

ibises, form a kind of connectin
medium length ;

IBISES. ae
and broad, with the second quill the longest; and the tail short and truncated.
Unlike the storks, the plumage of the adult differs considerably from that of the
young. Although the skull agrees in essential characters with that of the true
storks, the furcula is V-shaped. The American wood-stork (Tantalus loculator)
is the sole representative of its genus, and is characterised by the whole head and
upper part of the neck being bare. On the other hand, the African (Pseudotantalus
abis) and Indian wood-stork (P. leucocephalus) have only the forehead naked ;
while the beak, legs, and tail are much longer. All resemble the ibises in their
mode of feeding.

In the African wood-stork the general colour of the plumage is white, with
a tinge of rose on the back; the scapulars and wing-coverts being marked with
small purplish streaks below their white tips. The tail-feathers and quills are
shining greenish black; the eye being yellowish white, the beak waxy yellow,
and the leg and foot red. In size the bird is somewhat inferior to the white stork.
Young birds have the neck and upper-parts ashy grey, and the rest of the plumage
yellowish grey. The species is restricted to Western Africa.

The American wood-stork is a common bird in many parts of the United
States, where it associates in large flocks. According to Audubon, it feeds entirely
upon fish and aquatic reptiles, of which it consumes enormous quantities. To
procure their food, these birds walk in numbers through shallow, muddy lakes ;
and “as soon as they have discovered a place abounding in fish, they dance, as it
were, all through it, until the water becomes thick with the mud stirred from the
bottom by their feet. The fishes, on rising to the surface, are instantly struck by
the beak of the ibises, and on being deprived of life they turn over, and so remain.
In the course of ten or fifteen minutes, hundreds of fishes, young alligators, and
water-snakes, cover the surface, and the birds greedily swallow them until they
are completely gorged, after which they walk to the nearest margins, place them-
selves in long rows, with their breasts all turned to the sun, in the manner of
pelicans and vultures, and there remain for an hour or so.” In the adult bird the
head and upper-part of the neck are bare and of a livid blue colour, tinged with
yellow on the forehead; the legs are blue, tinged with yellow on the webs; while
the plumage is white.

IBISES AND SPOONBILLS.
Family PLATALEID&.

The last group of the order comprises the medium-sized birds known as ibises
and spoonbills, represented by some thirty species distributed all over the globe,
and which may be conveniently included under a single family heading. All
these birds are distinguished from the storks by the beak being soft for the greater
part of its length, although hard at the tip, and marked by a deep groove
extending from the slit-like nostril on each side of the base of its upper mandible
to the very tip, which is truncate and bent down. The limbs are stout and of
moderate length, with the front toes connected by a short basal web; the wings
are generally pointed; and the tail is short and truncated, and the plumage soft.
As regards their skeleton, the lower mandible has its angle produced into a

316 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES,

recurved process behind its articulation with the skull, instead of being truncated
as in the storks; the skull has a pair of small vacuities on the occipital surface ;
and the nasal apertures are in the form of extremely long slits (shizorhinal), in
place of being ovals. Finally, the furcula resembles that of the storks. All these
birds associate in large companies, and differ from the typical members of the
preceding family in their habit of probing about with their beaks in water in
search of food, till they come in contact with some object, which is then seized.
They nest in trees, and lay white eggs.

Owing to the general interest attaching to the sacred ibis, and
likewise from the gorgeous coloration of the scarlet ibis of America,
the ibises are some of the best known representatives of the order under considera-
tion. These birds, of which there are several genera, form a subfamily characterised
by the slender and nearly
cylindrical beak, which
tapers gradually towards
the tip, and is more or
less arched from its base.
In all of them the head is
more or less bald, although
occasionally only the lores
are naked; and _ they
generally have plume-like
scapular feathers at the
hinder end of the back.
The sacred ibis of Africa
([bis ethiopica) is the
type of a genus char-
acterised by the very
long and moderately

HEAD OF BERNIER’S IBIS. (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1870.) stout bill: the long wing,

in which the _ second
quill is slightly longer than the third; the short, twelve-feathered tail; and
the- general white hue of the plumage. The African species attains a length
of about 29 inches, and has the naked head and neck black, while the plumose
feathers of the back and the tips of the quills are greenish black; the rest of
the plumage being white, tinged here and there with buff It is represented
by the closely-allied black headed ibis (2. melanocephala) in India; while in
Madagascar there is Bernier’s ibis (J. bernierz), distinguished by the much smaller
extent of the naked black portion of the neck; and a third species (J. stricti-
pennis) inhabits Australia. The Japanese ibis (Nippenoa nippon) differs by
having only the face bare of feathers; it inhabits both Japan and China.

Although so common in the country of the Pharaohs during its times of
ereatness, the sacred ibis is now unknown in Egypt; and Leith Adams has doubts
whether it was ever indigenous there. As he observes: “ There could have been no
difficulty in procuring individuals from the shores of the Red Sea; and to a people
so well practised in taming wild animals (as were the ancient Egyptians), we may

Ibises,

IBISES. ant
eat |
conclude that it was soon domesticated, and bred freely, Moreover, like the black-
headed ibis of India, which usually lays from four to five eggs, we can easily
suppose that the numbers rapidly increased. On the contrary, when its protectors
vanished from the land, so did the ibis.” This species now breeds in the Upper
Nile, in Nubia, and the Sudan, as it does in Abyssinia, and it extends through the
continent to the Cape, where it is, however, of rare occurrence. It is essentially a
water-loving species, and, like its Indian cousins, may be met with in small or
moderate-sized flocks on the margins of rivers or lakes, or in the flooded rice-fields

THE SACRED IBIS (4 nat. size).

where it wanders in search of the molluses, insects, crustaceans, and worms, which
constitute its chief food. The flesh has a fishy taste, which renders it quite
uneatable to Europeans. In the lore of Ancient Egypt the ibis was the emblem of
Thoth, the secretary of Osiris, and was consequently held in the greatest venera-
tion, as is proved by the numbers of its mummified remains found in the temples.
At what date it disappeared from Egypt is unknown, but it remained at the
conquest of the country by the Romans, by whom it was introduced into Italy.
Among the other genera of the subfamily we may first refer to the warty-headed
or black ibis (Geronticus papillosus) of India, and the bald-headed ibis (G. calvus)
of South Africa, as well-known representatives of an Old World genus dis-

318 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES.

tinguished from the last by the longer and more slender beak, the shorter toes,
and the bald part of the head being confined to the crown, as well as by the
dark hue of the plumage. The Indian species has a triangular patch of red
warts on the top of the head; the general colour of the upper plumage being
dark brown, passing into black, with the wings and tail steel-blue, the quills dusky
black, and the under-parts blackish brown. An exceedingly common bird in
India, where it is generally known as the curlew, this ibis is usually found in the
open country away from water, where it feeds largely on insects. It builds on
high trees, laying from two to four eggs.

WHITE SPOONBILL (4 nat. size).

The glossy ibis (Falcinellus iqneus), which is an occasional visitant to the
British Islands, represents a third genus, differing from the last by the still greater
length of the beak, by the elongated metatarsus being covered in front with large
scales instead of hexagonal scales, and the longer toes. In the wings the second
and third quills are the longest, and the face alone is naked. This ibis is a dark-
coloured bird, the prevailing tints of the plumage being various shades of reddish
brown, with purplish reflections; and is remarkable for its wide distribution,
ranging over the greater part of Europe and Asia, and also occurring in North
America, and rarely in the north of Africa, as well as in Australia. The genus
also contains other species, and has an almost cosmopolitan distribution. In

SPOONBILLS. 319

Eastern Europe and India, this bird is found breeding in colonies comprising
thousands of individuals; the nests being generally placed in low bushes.

The last genus we have space to mention is exclusively American, and
comprises the beautiful scarlet ibis (Guara rubra), ranging from Northern South
America to Central America and the West Indies; and the white ibis (G. alba),
which is South American. While agreeing with the preceding in having the front
of the metatarsus covered with large scales, they differ in that the whole front
of the head is naked in the adult. Both have the tips of the wings blackish:
the rest of the plumage being scarlet in the one, and black in the other.

While the glossy ibis appears never to have been anything
more than a casual visitor to England, there is good evidence to
show that the beautiful bird known as the white spoonbill (Platalea leucolodia),
nested in Suffolk and Sussex some three centuries ago, although now it is but
rarely seen in Britain. The genus to which the spoonbill pertains represents
a subfamily distinguished from the ibises by the beak being very broad and
depressed, widening out at the tip into a spatulate expansion, and except at the
extremity being almost straight. Like the storks, spoonbills have no true organ
of voice; but they differ from the members of the former group in having the
lower end of the windpipe folded in a figure of eight. Their tongues are short
like those of the storks, but blunted at the end. Spoonbills, of which there are
several species, have a cosmopolitan distribution, although they are not found in
Malaysia and Oceania. In the common species, which attains a length of about 32
inches, the whole plumage of the adult, inclusive of the crest at the back of the
head, is white, with the exception of a band of buff feathers on the front of the
lower part of the neck, and a streak of the same tint up each side of the same.
The roots of some of the feathers of the back also display a rosy tinge. With the
exception of the extremity of its rounded portion, when it is yellow, the beak is
black, as are also the legs and feet; while the iris is bright red, and a patch of
naked skin on the throat is yellow. Young birds have no crests, and the shatts
and tips of the primary quills black. The spoonbill ranges over the greater part
of Europe except the extreme north, while eastwards it extends across Southern
Siberia to Amurland and the north of China; its southern range including India
and North Africa. In Japan it is replaced by the greater spoonbill (P. major),
and this country is also the habitat of the lesser spoonbill (P. ™m inor).

The spoonbill frequents either marshes, lakes, or sandbanks in rivers, where
it may be met with in small parties or large flocks. It feeds in shallow water, in
which it dabbles with its broad beak in search of insects, crustaceans, molluscs,
frogs, and small fish. It breeds in numbers in a marsh near Amsterdam, which is,
however, being drained; and there are numerous nesting-places in India. In
Holland the nests are situated on the mud among reeds, and are raised to a
height of from twelve to eighteen inches, being composed of reeds and mud, and
tapering from base to summit, upon which is a slight depression for the
white eges,—usually four in number. The eggs are laid at intervals of several
days and incubated at once. In colour the eggs are dull white, with reddish
brown streaks and spots. In India and Ceylon the spoonbill nests in tall trees,

the pipal and the tamarind being favourites.
t

Spoonbills.

CHA PRT E Reeve

FLAMINGOES, Ducks, AND SCREAMERS,—
Orders OpontToGLossI, ANSERES, AND PALAMEDEZ.

TAKING the general term “ducks” as including the geese, swans, etc., the members
of the three groups above named will comprise the remaining orders of birds
with bridged (desmognathous) palates, all of which are broadly distinguished from
those hitherto described by the circumstance that their young are covered with
down when hatched, and are able to run within a few hours of their first appear-
ance in the world. The members of these three orders are accordingly the only
birds which have bridged palates, and “precocious” young. In regard to the
flamingoes, it has only been recently ascertained that the young are hatched in
this forward condition. In the collective group the three front toes are either
completely webbed, or united by a fold of skin; and in most cases the beak is
either depressed and expanded, or has its extremity so bent down as to be at right
angles to its base, while its angle is produced in a recurved process behind the
points of articulation with the skull. Generally the rostrum of the base of the
skull has oval basipterygoid facets placed relatively far forwards; and in all
cases the oil-gland is tufted. Many of the group are more or less completely
herbivorous. .

THE FLAMINGOES.
Order ODONTOGLOSSI,—Family PH@NICOPTERIDZ.

With an apparently intuitive perception of its zoological relationship, the
Persians apply the name of kaj-i-surkh (red goose) to the flamingo, and have
thus forestalled the ornithologist, by whom these birds were always associated
with the storks and herons, as indeed they still are by some. Possessing the above-
mentioned features in common with the other two groups treated in this chapter,
the flamingoes, if we had only existing forms to deal with, might be readily
distinguished by the peculiar form of their beaks; but it happens that there are
certain nearly allied extinct birds in which the beak appears to have been of a
more normal form; and we are accordingly compelled to rely largely on other
features in defining the order. The whole group is readily characterised
by the great length of the legs, in which the tibia may be not greatly
longer than the metatarsus, while the first toe is rudimentary, or even
wanting. The lower end of the tibia differs widely from that of the duck
tribe in that its lower end is not bent inwards; while the corresponding
extremity of the metatarsus is very similar to that of the storks, having

FLAMINGOES. 321

the trochlea for the second toe markedly shorter than either of the others, and
much bent back, whereas in the storks and herons these three trochlew are of
nearly equal length. In the existing forms the basipterygoid facets on the
rostrum of the skull are rudimentary; and in all the metacoracoid (as figured in
Vol. III. p. 294) is characterised by its shortness and breadth, and its firm articula-
tion with the breast-bone. In their long legs and neck, and the absence of
unfeathered areas on the latter, as well as in many features of
their internal anatomy, the flamingoes resemble the storks, near
which they are placed by some authorities. Their extinct
allies are, perhaps, still more stork-like; so that the family
may probably be regarded as somewhat intermediate between
the storks and ducks, being ancestrally connected with the
former.

The true flamingoes, of which there are

True Flamingoes. 2 aya f . FRONT VIEW OF THE

some nine existing species, constitute the genus LOWER END OF THE

Phenicopterus, and are readily characterised by the beak RIGHT IBIS: OF THE
FLAMINGO.

being sharply bent down at an angle in front of the nostrils ;
its upper mandible being broad and flattened, and the lower
one deep and channelled. The leg is also of great length, with
the metatarsus but little shorter than the tibia. While some species have a small
first toe, in others this is completely wanting; and in all nearly the whole length of
the tibia is devoid of feathers. The neck is of great length and slenderness ; and
the wing of moderate size, with the first quill slightly the longest; while the tail
is short and even. Flamingoes, although unknown in Australia, are distributed
over the warmer regions of the greater part of both hemispheres, a few individuals
occasionally wandering as far north as the British Islands and Northern Germany.
With the exception of two species inhabiting the Chilian Andes, these birds
frequent open country in the neighbourhood of large rivers, where the water may
be either fresh, brackish, or salt. In a fossil state flamingoes occur in the lower
Miocene rocks of France. All the members of the genus are characterised by the
general red hue of the plumage,—either rosy white or full scarlet,—with black on
the wings. In the adult of the European flamingo (P. rosews) the whole of the
plumage is rosy white, with the exception of the quills of the wings, which are
black, and the light scarlet wing-coverts. The iris and naked skin round the eyes
are yellow; the beak is rosy red at the base and black at the tip; and the legs
and feet are pinkish red. Young birds, on the other hand, lack nearly all the
rose-colour, while their secondary quills are barred with black, and all the naked
parts are of a leaden hue. A full-grown bird may vary from 5 to as much as 6 feet
5 inches in length. In this species there is a small third toe, which is, however,
wanting in the two Chilian forms. The common flamingo visits the salt-marshes
and lagoons at the mouth of the Rhone and other districts in the south of France
during the breeding-season, where it may at times be met with in thousands. It
is Bea abundant in similar localities in Spain; and its range extends southwards
to the Cape, and eastwards to Lake Baikal, India, Ceylon, ete. The American
flamingo (P. ruber) is, however, distinct, having the gene1 ral colour of the plumage
a full vermilion-scarlet. Flocks of flamingoes, as they may be seen by the lakes
VOL. IV.—21

a, bony bridge; 0,
tubercle.

FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

322

of North-Western India, form one of the most wonderful sights in the world.

lividuals, which may be seen either massed upon the water, looking like huge

Ina

the lakes of Sind, Mr. Hume describes the flocks as comprising tens of thousands

Still more wonderful is it

slands, or floating above it like a cloud at sunset.

rosy 1

nat. size

MINGOES (

EUROPEAN F

se enormous flocks rise suddenly when alarmed; as you approach

as they remain on the water at rest, they look s

“to see one of the

them, so long
of faintly r

ly like a mass

imp

A rifle is fired, and then the exposure of the upper and

of the wing turns the mass

osy snow.
waving too and fro in mighty fold

under-coverts

o
5

into a

gantic, brilliantly rosy searf,

t floats away.”

ally a wader, the fl

S, aS 1

ll and

an swim we

leep water ¢

LTC

’M1Ngo

Although essenti

DO ELS. Bo8
powerfully, carrying the neck nearly straight and inclined somewhat forwards,
and moving in a series of jerks. In flight, the neck and legs are stretched straight
out in front and behind; the flock progressing in the same formation as geese, and
uttering “gageling” cries almost indistinguishable from those of the latter.
Although flamingoes doubtless consume a number of small aquatic animals, it
would appear that their chief food consists of various water-plants, which are pulled
up from beneath the surface. When feeding, the flamingo turns its head the
wrong way up, in which position its bent beak forms a most efficient spoon-like
instrument. The nests, as described by Mr. Abel Chapman at the mouth of the
Guadalquivir, are in the form of round basin-shaped elevations of mud placed in
close continuity on the mud-flats. They may vary from 2 to 6 inches in height,
but the majority are very shallow, and present somewhat the appearance of a
number of plates spread over the plain. Other single nests were, however, situated
in the water, and were in consequence much taller. The eggs, two in number,
have a chalky external coating, beneath which is a greenish blue shell. During
incubation Mr. Chapman states that the birds have “their long red legs doubled
under their bodies, the knees projecting as far as beyond the tail, and their graceful
necks neatly coiled away among their back feathers, like a sitting swan, with their
heads resting on their breasts.” According to Brehm, the period of incubation
lasts a month; and the young take to the water almost immediately after hatching,
swimming to a much greater extent than their parents. When conditions are not
favourable for building, nests like the above cannot be formed, and the eggs are
dropped anywhere ; while, in some seasons, from persecution or want of water, the
birds do not breed at all.

Short-Legged During the Miocene period there existed in Europe numerous

Flamingoes. flamingo-like birds which cannot be referred to the existing genus,
even if they belong to the same family. The best known of these have been
named Palclodus, and were smaller birds than modern flamingoes, from which
they were distinguished by their relatively shorter and stouter legs and longer toes,
while it is highly probable that the beak was not deflected in the manner
characterising the true flamingoes.

THE Duck TRIBE.

Order ANSERES,

Family AVATID£.

Nearly related as are the members of the duck tribe to the flamingoes, yet
they are very different-looking birds, easily distinguished by external characteristics.
In the first place, their legs are always short, and inferior in length to the wings ;
the tibia being usually feathered nearly or quite to the ankle, and scarcely free
from the body. The cannon-bone, or metatarsus, differs from that of the flamingoes
in its shortness, although the two resemble one another in the shortness and back-
ward direction of the trochlea for the second toe, while the tibia is at once
distinguished by the marked inflection of its lower extremity. The first toe,
although generally small, is always present ; while, as in the flamingoes, the three
front toes are, except in one instance, completely webbed. The relatively short

324 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

beak is comparatively straight, and more or less depressed and laterally expanded,
with peculiar laminations on its edges; while the rostrum of the lower surface
of the skull shows well-marked basipterygoid facets for the articulation of the
pterygoid bones. In the skeleton of the body the metacoracoid is much longer
and narrower than that of the flamingoes, and is also much less firmly articulated
to the breast-bone. The plumage is characterised by its dense and compact nature,
and the facility with which water is thrown off from its surface. In the wings
there are always ten primary quills, but the number of tail-feathers is Hable to
variation. All the members of the order moult annually in the
autumn, and the quills of the wings are generally shed so
rapidly as to incapacitate the birds for flight for some days.
In the true ducks, however, the males change their contour-
feathers twice in the year. Although the ducks resemble the
flamingoes in laying uniformly-coloured eggs, they differ in that
the number in a clutch is large, instead of being generally but
a pair; the eggs themselves are further characterised by their
hard and usually very smooth shells.

The general external appearance of the members of the
duck tribe is too well known to need special mention. It may
be observed, however, that their build is that best adapted for
rapid progress through the water; the breast and fore-part of

the body being broad and rounded, the hinder extremity

narrow and tapering, and the legs placed relatively far back.
Although it has been attempted to divide the members
of the order into several distinct families, the whole of them

FRONT AND LOWER VIEWS ‘ S . :
OF THE RIGHT cANNon- are so nearly allied that it seems impossible to do more than

a cae yaa eroup the genera of the one family Anatide under several
subfamilies, and even some of these are very difficult of definition. The species
of the family, which are probably about one hundred and sixty in number, are
distributed all over the globe, although more numerous in the higher latitudes
of the Northern Hemisphere than elsewhere. All are thoroughly aquatic in their
habits; but while the majority are swimmers, the members of one group are
expert divers. As a rule, they associate in flocks of larger or smaller size, and
migrate in numbers to the northern portions of their habitat for the breeding-
season. They are all birds of strong flight, and when on the wing fly in the
well-known chevron-shaped formation, frequently at a great height in the air.
Although the majority of the species are more or less omnivorous in their diet,
the mergansers subsist exclusively on fish, while the greater part of the food of
the geese consists of grass. The group is not a very ancient one, the earliest
known forms occurring in the lower beds of the Miocene division of the Tertiary
period.

Spur-Winged The African spur-winged geese (Plectropterus), of which there

Grace: are two species, take their name from the long spur on each wing,
which is sharply pointed and attached to the outer side of the wrist-joint; and as
they differ in several important points from the other members of the order, they
constitute a subfamily by themselves, some writers even making them the repre-

SPUR-WINGED ‘GEESE. 325
sentatives of a distinct family. The lores are naked, and the metatarsus is covered in
front with large scutes ; thus differing in both these characters from the geese. The
beak is of considerable length and of nearly equal width throughout, terminating
in a nail-like knob, and having at its base a large protuberance. In the adult the
front of the head is bare and warty, and the cheeks and part of the neck are also
naked. The leg is of considerable length, with the lower part of the tibia bare,
the metatarsus wide and compressed, and the first toe relatively long, simple, and
elevated, the front webs being somewhat deeply incised. In the common P.

SPUR-WINGED GOOSE (4 nat. size).

gambensis the plumage of the upper-parts and the sides of the breast is black,
tinged with coppery green; the wings are mottled with white, the abdomen white
with patches of black behind the thighs, the naked parts of the face reddish, and
the beak and legs reddish and orange-yellow. In size the bird nearly equals the
English wild goose. The spur-winged goose inhabits tropical Africa, ranging from
Senegambia southwards to the Transvaal and Zambesia, being replaced in Abyssinia
and the adjacent regions by Riippell’s spur-winged goose (P. rueppelli). A tew
stragglers have been observed in Britain. In the Sudan these birds are generally
found in small parties, which for a considerable part of the year frequent the

326 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

banks of rivers, although during the moulting-time, when unable to fly, they seek
the retirement and shelter of reedy marshes and swamps; and in the breeding-
season the flocks divide up into pairs. Farther south, according to Messrs. Nicolls
and Eglinton, they frequent the reedy margins of Lake Ngami and the Chobi and
Zambesi Rivers, where they breed in immense numbers. When, however, the smaller
water-courses and pools are filled with water, these birds desert the impenetrable
swamps, to wander in pairs over the country. “The broods usually number from
eight to twelve, the old birds remaining with their progeny for the remainder of
the season following the nesting. They do not feed in the day, but may be then
observed in the open water, or standing motionless on some dry bank, rocky
prominence, or island. When on the wing, they continuously utter a low, hissing
noise, and shortly after sundown, just before darkness sets in, leave their day-
resorts and fly to the feeding-ground, which is generally some very shallow pass
or swamp overgrown with grass, and here they spend the night in search of leeches
and water animalcule.” The nest is a huge structure of reeds and flags, generally
built among the reeds, but occasionally in a low bush; and to the northward the
number of eggs is said to be much less than that above mentioned. During the
night they generally fly low; and, in accordance with the length of their legs, they
walk less awkwardly than the true geese. Shy and wary, as well as endowed with
great vitality, these birds are difficult to kill, and the flesh of the old ones is rank —
and tough. They are easily tamed, and thrive in confinement, although their
disposition 1s pugnacious.
Half-Webbed A still more peculiar form than the last is the half-webbed or
Coene: pied goose (Anseranas melanoleucas) of Australia, in which the front
toes are only webbed at the base, and the hind one is very long and not raised
above their level, and furnished with a large claw. The lores are naked, and the
metatarsus is reticulate and longer than the third toe. This remarkable bird,
which is about the size of the brent goose, constitutes a distinct subfamily by
itself, and has a dull black and white plumage, and a hooked beak, with a large,
warty, comb-like prominence on the front of the head. The claws are long and
sharp, and the whole foot is adapted for perching. In accordance with this structure,
these birds sit for hours on the branches of the Australian tea-trees, and but seldom
enter the water. Their ery is loud and hoarse, but quite unlike that of the common
goose; and the windpipe is folded on itself, although on the side of, instead of
within, the breast-bone, as in the swans.
Cee enacts The large cereopsis goose (Cereopsis novee-hollandie) of New
Zealand and Tasmania is the sole existing representative of another
subfamily characterised by the extreme shortness of the beak, which is covered at
the base with a waxy skin, and has its extremity bent down and truncated so as
to approximate in appearance to that of a fowl. The body is very stoutly built
and massive, the neck short and thick, the head small, the leg long, and the foot
with short toes, powerful nails, and deeply incised webs. The wings are broad,
with strong quills; the tail is rounded, and the body-plumage soft. The colour of
the plumage is a clear ashy grey, with brown reflections, passing into hghter grey
on the crown of the head, and marked on the back with blackish brown spots near
the tips of the feathers; the under tail-coverts and the tips of some of the wing-

feathers being also blackish brown. The eye is scarlet, the beak black, with its
waxy covering greenish yellow, and the leg and foot blackish.

In habits the cereopsis goose—commonly known in Australia as the Cape
Barron goose—is much more of a land than a water bird, its gait being very unlike
that of an ordinary goose, and its rate of swimming slow. The flight is, moreover,
heavy. Essentially diurnal in their habits, these birds are nowhere common, and
are rapidly diminishing in number, having been even exterminated in some of the
smaller Australian islands. During a long sojourn in Victoria, the “Old Bushman”
states that he only saw these birds on two occasions—“ once in a small flock, and
once when two pitched with the tame geese at Mordialloe (as they are fond of
doing), and which were caught alive. They soon became tame, and used to stalk
about the paddock; but they were very pugnacious with the other geese. Their
call-note was a deep, trumpet-like sound.” The nest, although no great work of
art,is better built than that of most members of the family, being smoothly rounded
inside, and decorated with feathers and down. In size the eggs are relatively small,
while in form they are rounded, and in colour yellowish white. The period of
incubation varies from thirty to thirty-eight days, according to the weather, and
the young are able to run immediately after breaking the egg.

New Zealand Till within a comparatively recent date New Zealand was in-
Goose. habited by a nearly allied but larger goose (Cnemiornis calcitrans),

which, like so many of the large birds of those islands, had totally lost the power
of flight, the wings being very small, and the keel of the breast-bone wanting.
In all probability these birds were exterminated by the Maories. As in the cereopsis
goose, the metacoracoid of this extinet species was much wider and shorter than
it 1s in the other members of the family.

The true geese (Anser), together with several allied genera,
constitute a fourth subfamily distinguished by the following char-
acteristics, and including some forty species, having an almost world - wide
distribution. In size the geese occupy a middle position in the family, none of
them being large. The neck is of moderate length, being always shorter than the
body ; the lores are feathered; the beak is not longer than the head, and tapers to

The True Geese.

the extremity, which is covered by a large nail-like knob; while the metatarsus is
rather long, exceeding the third toe in length, and is covered on all sides with
reticulate scales. The tail-feathers may be either fourteen or sixteen ; and although
the two sexes are usually very much alike, there is great specific variation im
colour. But a single autumnal moult of the plumage takes place; and all these
birds are essentially vegetable feeders, many of them grazing in the well-known
manner of the domestic breeds. They are all birds of strong, though somewhat
heavy flight; and although some are confined to the Southern Hemisphere, the
majority seek the remote regions of the north in which to breed, ranging in winter
over the warmer parts of the same hemisphere. As compared with the swans,
their more elevated bodies and relatively longer legs (in which the tibia is
feathered nearly to the ankle) are indicative of more terrestrial habits. In the
members of the genus Anser, there is but little if any black in the plumage of the
head and neck; the beak and feet are light-coloured, and usually reddish in the
adult; and the tail has sixteen feathers,

328 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.,

The genus is represented by some twenty species, ranging over the cold and
temperate regions of the globe, but becoming almost cosmopolitan in the winter.
Of these the typical member is the grey-lag goose (A. cinereus), which is probably
the parent form of the domesticated breeds, and is the only species which nests in
the British Islands. It is characterised by the white or whitish nail on the beak ;
by the remainder of the beak, together with the feet, being usually flesh-coloured,
although liable to vary from creamy white to purplish red; while the wing-coverts
and rump are slaty grey. In length, the male measures about 35, and the female
30 inches. Breeding at the present day in the British Islands only, in the north

of Scotland and Ireland, the grey-

SS lag goose ranges all over Europe

——— SSS and North and Central Asia as far

east as Amurland, while in winter
it spreads over Southern China
and Upper India. The white-
fronted goose (A. albifrons), of
which there is a larger and a
smaller variety, is another British
species, although only a winter
visitant, also found in India during
the cold season. It is a much
smaller form than the preceding,
the length of the larger race only
reaching 27 inches, while in the
smaller it varies from 24 to 20.
The beak is generally orange-
yellow, with a white nail; the feet
being likewise of the former hue;
while the forehead is characterised
by the presence of a variable
amount of white feathers at the
base of the beak; and the plumage
of the breast is much mottled in the adult with brownish black. The Old
World distribution of this species is very similar to that of the last; but it is found
during winter in North-Eastern Africa, while it also occurs in Greenland, and is
represented in the rest of North America by a variety (A. gambeli). The
smaller form is often termed the dwarf goose. Agreeing nearly in size with
the grey-lag goose, the bean-goose (A. segetwm)—another well-known British
species—may be readily distinguished by the black nail of the beak; the middle
portion of the beak being orange-yellow, and its base black; while the legs and
feet are also orange-yellow or orange. This species also ranges over the greater
part of the northern half of the Old World, occurring during the winter in
Britain, the shores of the Mediterranean, India, and Japan. It is, however,
essentially a northern form, only breeding in Scandinavia to the north of latitude
64°, and in Siberia on the tundras near lakes and pools beyond or near the limits
of forest. The pink-footed goose (A brachyrhynchus) is a closely allied smaller

WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE,

GEESE. ae

species or variety, measuring only 28 inches in length, and characterised by the
middle portion of the beak being generally pinkish, although sometimes orange-
yellow; while the feet are usually flesh-coloured. Breeding in Spitzbergen,
probably Iceland, and perhaps Novaia Zemlia, this small goose visits the British
Islands in great numbers during the winter, while it occurs rarely in Northern
India. The snow goose (A. hyperborews), of which there is a large and small race,
belongs to a second group of the genus! characterised by the very stout and
slightly convex beak, and by the head and neck, or the whole plumage of the
adult, with the exception of the primaries, being entirely white. The snow goose
is one of those in which the primaries are black, and the rest of the plumage
white ; the smaller variety measuring 23 inches in length. Distributed over the
whole of North America, this essentially northern species probably has a cireum-
polar distribution, and nests on the barren Arctic tundras, although but little is
known of its habits. Ross’s goose (A. rossi) of north-western North America, is a
smaller form, with numerous caruncles at the base of its shorter beak; while the
American blue-winged goose (4. cwrulescens) has a large portion of the plumage
of the body greyish brown, with bluish grey wing-coverts and rump.

The true geese for the greater part of the year frequent marshes,
lakes, moors, or open plains, where there is water; but during the
winter not unfrequently seek the sea-coast. Their harsh “gaggling” notes are
among the most discordant of sounds; and although they associate in flocks
during the winter, and frequently also breed in company, each male has but a
single consort. The nest is of large size, with the numerous eggs of a creamy
white colour; and both sexes take part in the work of incubation. In undisturbed
districts they feed during the day, but, when frequently fired at, their feeding-
hours are mostly nocturnal; shoots of young grass and corn forming their
favourite food. The snow goose, however, subsists largely on berries in the
summer. Writing of the grey-lag goose in India, Mr. Hume observes that when
not feeding, these birds “spend their time dozing or dawdling about on the margin
of some lake or the bank of some river, always by preference choosing some island
in these for their noontide siesta. Unless disturbed, they very rarely take to the
water. Although they rise rather awkwardly and slowly, with violent and rather
noisy flappings of their wings, they fly very strongly and easily when once off,
and I do not know a more beautiful sight than the sudden and rapid descent of a
large flock from high in the air to some sandbank. The flock comes along in
sober state, circles round decorously once or twice, and then suddenly down they
come with incredible rapidity, twisting and turning with an ease and grace for
which no one could at other times have given them eredit.’ When passing from
one piece of water to another, they frequently fly in an irregular mass, but, when
journeying long distances, the flock generally ascends to a great height, and flies
either in a line or a chevron. During the winter in India these geese are
commonly seen in flocks of from thirty to a hundred, but at times a thousand or
more may be collected together. The grey-lag does not go so far north to breed
as the bean-goose - and its northward, and sometimes also its southward migration,
is consequently earlier. The nest of the grey-lag is built of grass and flags,

Habits.

1 Frequently separated as a distinct genus Chen.

330 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

without lining, and is usually placed either at the base of a tussock of coarse grass
or among heather; the general number of eggs being six,

Shy and wild as is the grey-lag goose in many districts, on the larger Indian
rivers, according to the experience both of Mr. Hume and ourselves, it may be
easily approached within range, with the aid of a boat protected in front by a
sereen, behind which the sportsman lies concealed. In this manner a flock
standing on a sandbank may be approached within a hundred yards without
causing much disturbance. “As you approach nearer,” writes Mr. Hume, “all
begin to walk slowly away, and, as a rule, if you persist in coming within twenty
yards, and coming on quicker than they can walk, they rise and fly; or if you”
stand up in the boat, or make any sudden noise, they will equally take to wing,
but if you drift quietly down on them, they will let you come within twenty or
thirty yards without quitting the bank.” With the first shot they rise with a
deafening clamour, generally circling round the boat, and often affording the
chance of a second shot.

The Brent or Although nearly allied to the snow geese, the typical brent geese
Sea Geese. of the Northern Hemisphere (Bernicla) are distinguished from the
true geese by their darker plumage, in which the head and neck are chiefly black,
and the beak and feet entirely black, at all ages. All these birds are characterised
by their short subconical beaks, of which the length is considerably less than that
of the head; the mandibles having their inner edges nearly straight, and their
lamelle nearly or completely concealed; while the nail at the tip is ovate, and the
nostrils oval and nearly central. The long wings are also more pointed than in
the true geese, and the tail is short and rounded.

Of the more typical representatives of the genus, we may first
mention the brent goose (B. brenta), characterised by the head
and neck being black, with the exception of a white patch on each side of the
latter. The length is about 22 inches; and in the typical form the upper part of
the breast is black, while the lower part of the latter and the abdomen are slaty
grey. There is, however, a variety (glaucogaster) in which the under-parts below
the breast are nearly white. The brent goose inhabits all Arctic Europe and part
of Asia, wintering in the British Islands, North Germany, France, Belgium, etce.,
and occasionally ranging to the Mediterranean and the Valley of the Nile. It
breeds in Spitzbergen, Novaia Zemlia, and the islands of Arctic Siberia, and
thence to the extreme north; while in America it nests in Greenland, and ranges
southwards on the east side of that continent as far as New York, or even Texas.
In western Arctic America it is replaced by the American brent goose (B. nigri-
cans), distinguished by the white of the middle of the neck forming an almost
complete collar; the winter range of this species extending along the Pacific sea-
board as far as Lower California. The bernicle goose (B. lewcopsis)—anciently
supposed by some extraordinary confusion of ideas to have been produced from
the well-known ship-barnacles—is a larger species, measuring upwards of 25

Northern Species.

inches in length, and easily recognised by the greater part of the front of the head
being white, although the lores and the feathers at the base of the upper mandible
are black. The plumage of the upper-parts is largely lavender-grey; the
scapulars, wing-coverts, and many of the wing-feathers tipped with a bluish black

GEESE. ia

°o

erescent edged with white at the end, while the primaries and tail-feathers are
almost. black; the breast and abdomen being greyish white, and the under tail-
coverts pure white. This species is an inhabitant of the coasts of Northern
Europe, ranging in winter to the British Islands, and occasionally found as far
south as Spain and Italy. How far eastwards it extends in Northern Asia is at
present unknown; while there is no definite information as to its breeding,
although it probably nests in Novaia Zemlia, Spitzbergen, and the regions still

UE)

MALE AND FEMALE HALF-BRED UPLAND GEESE. (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1876.)

further north. It probably also breeds in Greenland, being occasionally found on
the Atlantic coasts of North America. A fourth very distinct representative of the
genus is the Canada brent goose (B. canadensis), easily recognised by its black
head and neck, with a large triangular patch of white on each cheek, usually
joined by a band beneath the throat, but sometimes separated by a narrow black
line. Occasionally there is also a white collar encircling the lower part of the
neck. As regards the rest of the plumage, the tail, rump, and primaries are
brownish black, the upper tail-coverts and region of the vent white, and the

332 : FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

remainder greyish brown, lighter below than above, with the tips of the feathers
paler. This goose, which is very variable in size and coloration, inhabits the
whole of North America, as far south as Mexico. Very different from all the
above is the handsome bird known as the red-breasted goose (B. rujicollis), which
may be recognised by the black forehead, white lores, and the rich chestnut of the
neck and upper breast bordered above with white. The ear-coverts have also an
angular patch of chestnut bordered with white; the upper-parts are blackish
brown; the top of the head, part of the sides of the face, the back of the neck, the
throat, the primaries, tail-feathers, and lower breast are black ; and the upper and
lower tail-coverts and the abdomen white. In length this bird measures from |
21 to 22 inches. Its native home is the tundras of Siberia, whence it wanders
occasionally during the winter to Scandinavia, Northern Germany, Holland, the
British Islands, and other parts of Kurope.

From being such exclusively Arctic birds, our acquaintance with
the habits of the more typical brent geese is not so intimate as would
be desirable. In Europe during the winter they generally frequent the neighbour-
hood of the coasts, although at times penetrating some distance inland. Usually
collecting at this season in considerable flocks, these birds always indicate their near
presence by the constant gaggling kept up as they feed, or by the hoarse cronk of
their call-note. The food of the bernicle goose consists chiefly of grasses and
bents growing on the sandhills; while the brent goose eats seaweeds and other
water-plants, as well as crustaceans and other small aquatic creatures. On the
other hand, the Canada goose subsists largely on berries and corn. During its
migrations the latter species assembles in flocks, which unite together to form a
vast column, with each section under an appointed leader. At such times they
generally fly throughout the night, although occasionally resting in the daytime.
When about to alight, pioneers descend from the flock to select a favourable and
safe feeding-ground; and during the whole time that it is on the ground, the flock
is guarded by sentinels. The watchfulness of these guardians renders a flock
of Canada geese almost impossible to approach by stalking; and the plan adopted
in many parts of the States is to dig pits in a stubble-field, in which the sportsmen
take up their position surrounded by a number of decoys. The geese are then
shot during their morning and evening flights from lake to lake, when they are
attracted within easy range by the decoys. In the Magdalen Islands this species
makes its nest in marshy plains, occasionally laying as many as nine eggs in a
clutch. The brent goose, on the other hand, breeds on the sides of slopes on
the bare space left between the line of snow and the sea-ice; the four eggs being
deposited on a bed of grass, moss, and saxifrage, overlain with down. Occasionally
the nest of another bird is adopted by some of the members of this genus. All the
brent geese are readily tamed, and breed in confinement, several of the species
crossing with one another.

The brent geese of the Southern Hemisphere differ more or less
markedly from their northern cousins, and some or all of them have
accordingly been separated (as Cloéphaga) from the genus Bernicla, although we
follow Mr. Sclater in including the whole of them under that name. Several of
these lack the black heads and necks of the northern species; and in some, such as

Habits.

Southern Species.

GEESE. 333

the upland goose (B. magellanica), ranging from the Falkland Islands to Chili,
and the kelp goose (B. antarctica) of the Falkland Islands and Patagonia, the
male is mainly white, while the female is mottled brown. In other cases, however,
as shown in our figure, which is taken from hybrids between the upland goose and
another species known as B. dispar, the difference between the two sexes is less
marked, although the male still has a lighter head and neck. Other species are
the small Australian brent goose (B. jubata), which is of the size of a duck, and
characterised by the extreme shortness of its beak, and its blackish head and neck ;
and the Sandwich Island goose (B. sandvicensis). According to Mr. W. H.

ijt

(
7A
nM My
{ i My

i)
Hi

fi ya
ca a i

EGYPTIAN GOOSE (} nat. size),

Hudson, the upland goose, which, like some other members of the genus, has a
small spur on its wing, visits Patagonia in great numbers during the winter, and
inflicts much damage on the growing crops of young corn and clover.

The Egyptian goose (Chenalopex cegyptiaca) is the best known

Egyptian and
Knob-Winged member of a genus typically represented by the knob-winged goose
Beers. (C. jubata) of South America. It is characterised by the beak being

equal in length to the head, and of rather slender form, with the tip bent suddenly
down so as almost to conceal the lower mandible, and the nostrils placed near its
base. The wings are rather long and broad, and are each armed with a small bare
knob, while the tail has fourteen rounded feathers. The legs are relatively long,

334 ~ FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

with the metatarsus exceeding the length of the third toe; and the first toe is well
developed. The windpipe of the male differs from that of ordinary geese in being
dilated at the lower end. In colour the Egyptian goose has the sides of the head
and front of the neck mottled yellowish white ; a patch round the eye, the hinder-
neck, and a collar round the lower part of the latter are chestnut-brown; on the
upper-parts the general hue is mingled grey and black, and that of the under-parts
yellowish brown, marked with black and white, and becoming lighter on the
hinder-part of the breast and abdomen; the breast having a patch of chestnut
brown. The carpal portion of the wing and wing-coverts is white, with black tips
to the smaller coverts; the secondaries are tinged with reddish bay, and edged .
with chestnut; and the prim-
aries and tail-feathers are
brilliant black. The iris is
yellow ; the beak is horn-colour
above, with the tip pink, the
nail, margin, and base dark
brown, and the lower mandible
cherry-red; the legs and feet
being pink.

This handsomely coloured
bird, which is the vulpanser of
Herodotus, was domesticated
by the ancient Egyptians, and,
although not sacred, was the
emblem of Seb, the father of
Osiris. It now occurs in the
Nile Valley southwards of
Cairo, and thence ranges over
the greater part of tropical
Africa, and is the common wild
goose of the Cape Colony.
Going about either singly or in
pairs, the Egyptian goose frequents both rapid running streams and pools and lakes ,
and its nest may be situated either on dry land or among long swampy grass in
the Zambesi district. Further north these birds have, however, been known to
rear their young on ledges of steep cliffs. The young brood leave their parents as
soon as they are strong enough to fly. When on the wing, a loud, harsh, grating
noise, which has been compared to the bark of a dog, is continually uttered. This
goose has been more or less completely acclimatised in England, where it may not
unfrequently be seen on ornamental waters; and in confinement it has bred with
several other members of the family,—among them the spur-winged goose. The
flesh is superior in quality to that of the latter species. The windpipe of the
male is peculiar in having a large bony capsule on the left side of its lower
extremity.

AMERICAN KNOB-WINGED GOOSE.

So indissolubly was the attribute of whiteness connected among

The Swans, : 5 : 5
the ancients with the swans, that the idea of a black swan, as ex-

SWANS. age
pressed in the well-known line, rara avis in terris, nigroque simillima cygno,
was considered a mere flight of the poetic imagination. Nevertheless, not only
does a black swan exist, but a second species is remarkable for having a black
head and neck and a white body. The swans, all of which may be included
in the single genus Cygnus, are readily defined as members of the present
family characterised by their exceedingly long necks, their naked lores, the simple
first toe, and the metatarsus reticulated and shorter than the third toe with the
claw. The group as thus defined, indicates not only a genus, but likewise a distinet
subfamily. All these birds are of large size, and have the flexible and slender neck
as long as, or longer than the body; while the beak exceeds the head in length,
and has its edges parallel, and the terminal nail small. The tail-feathers vary
from twenty to twenty-four in number; and, with the exception of the black
Australian swan, the plumage is entirely or mainly white in the adult state. The
two sexes are nearly alike; and there is but a single moult. Swans, of which
there are comparatively few species, are distributed over the greater part of the
world except Africa south of the Sahara, North Australia, and the northern
districts of South America. The gracefulness of their form, and especially the
beautiful curving of the neck, is proverbial; and they are all birds of powerful
flight, more aquatic in their habits than the geese, but also walking well on land.
Frequenting lakes and other inland waters in summer, they often seek the sea in
winter; but while some prefer open waters, others, like Bewick’s swan, rather
favour marshes and narrow rivers. Their food consists of the seeds, stems, and
roots of flags and other water-plants, supplemented by insects and molluses. All
the white swans are migratory, and during their migrations fly both by night and
day. Like the geese, they are more or less gregarious, especially during the winter ;
and they also resemble those birds in pairing apparently for life. Their large
untidy nests are placed on the ground, often among tussocks of coarse grass, and
contain from three to eight dull whitish eggs. As a rule, the young birds have
feathered lores, and a greyish brown plumage. The call-note is loud and trumpet-
like.

At least two species of swans are winter-visitants to the British
Islands, while a third occurs in a domesticated state, although
probably a few wild individuals also arrive. The first of these is the whooper or
whistling swan (C. musicus), which belongs to a group of species common to the
northern half of both the Old and New Worlds, and characterised by their com-
paratively short and rounded tails; while it is specifically distinguished by the
lores and the basal portion of the beak to below the nostrils being yellow, the
remainder of the nostrils being black. In length this species reaches 60 inches. The
whooper is essentially an Arctic species, breeding chiefly within the Arctic Circle
either on the islands in the deltas of the great rivers, or on the lakes of the Siberian
tundras. Iceland and the northern parts of Scandinavia are also favourite nesting-
haunts of this species, which appears to breed in pairs and not in small flocks. Mr.
Hume is of opinion that during its winter migration this species does not, except
in unusually severe winters, go as far south as some of its allies, although at times
it reaches the Mediterranean Islands, Egypt, Algeria, and Palestine. Eastwards, it
visits the Caspian, Persia, Turkestan, China, and Japan, but is unknown in India

Whistling Swans.

336 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

proper. The nesting-season commences in the latter half of May, the usual period
of incubation being about six weeks; but the young birds are unable to fly before
the end of August. In diet these swans are mainly vegetarians.

A considerably smaller bird than the last, this species (C. bewickv)
may be distinguished by the yellow of the bill not extending below
the nostrils; the total length being about 50 inches. The general distribution is
very similar to that of the whooper, although this swan is only an accidental visitor

Bewick’s Swan.

WHISTLING SWAN (4 nat. size).

to Norway, and does not breed in Iceland. Indeed, it is only within the last
twenty years that its nest and eggs were first obtained; and even now very little
is known of its breeding-habits, since this swan is even a more northerly bird than
the whooper. Its note is less loud and harsh than that of the latter, being indeed
somewhat musical in sound. In winter this swan congregates in enormous flocks,
which may be numbered by hundreds, or even thousands; and it is at all times
exceedingly wary and difficult to approach. In both the whooper and Bewick’s
swan the windpipe is bent upon itself, and is received into a cavity in the front
of the breast-bone, from which it again emerges to enter the chest; but the
nature of the folding is different in the two species, and serves to distinguish
between them.

SWANS. 437

North America possesses two representatives of this group of
swans, namely, the American swan (C. coluwmbianus), and the
trumpeter swan (C. buccinator), both of which have the windpipe folded. These
two species have black beaks; but whereas in the former the number of. tail-
feathers is usually twenty, the beak is not longer than the head, and the naked
skin of the lores generally shows a yellow spot; in the latter there are twenty-
four tail-feathers, the beak is longer than the head, and there is no yellow on the
lores. The trumpeter somewhat exceeds the whooper in size, whereas the other
species is somewhat smaller. In defence of wounded companions the American
swan is stated to display great affection, a number having been known to collect
round a disabled bird and aid its escape by pushing it forward in the water and
supporting its broken wing. In its southerly migration it collects in flocks of
twenty or thirty, flying only when the wind is favourable, and then ascending to
a great height in the air. The flock flies in the form of an elongated wedge; the
rate of their progress being estimated at upwards of a hundred miles an hour.

The mute swan of the Old World (C. olor) indicates a second
group of the genus, characterised by the relatively long and wedge-
shaped tail, the presence of a large tubercle at the base of the beak, and the absence
of a fold of the windpipe entering the breast-bone. In addition to these features,
the mute swan may be recognised by the coloration of the beak, in which the base,
together with the lores and tubercle, is black, while the terminal portion is orange-
red; the coloration being therefore just the reverse of that met with in the
whooper. In size the mute swan agrees with the latter; the tubercle of the bill
attaining its greatest development in old males. Best known in the British Islands
as a domesticated bird, there is little doubt that during the winter there are some
wild visitants. The range of the species includes Europe and some portions of
Asia, the breeding-area embracing South Sweden, parts of Germany, Russia,
Transylvania, Turkestan, ete., while during winter these birds enter Northern
Africa, Egypt, and North-Western India. While swimming, the mute swan is the
most graceful of all its kin, being the one in which alone the neck is bent in true
“swanlike” form. Deriving its name from the absence of any cry in the domestic
race, it appears that wild birds trumpet like the whooper. The nesting-time—
during which the male bird displays extreme pugnacity—takes place in May; the

American Swans.

Mute Swan.

nests being generally built in association, and the number of eggs in each varying
from five to eight. The only swannery in England is the one at Abbotsbury, near
Weymouth, belonging to the Earl of Ilchester, where in 1880 there were upwards
of fourteen hundred birds. This swannery, which dates from very ancient times,
is situated on the estuary known as the Fleet, of which the upper portion is brackish
while the lower parts are completely salt. In the breeding-season the nests cover
a large area near the shore; and while some of the young birds remain to increase
the numbers in the swannery, others wander out into the Fleet and become nearly
wild. The severe winter of 1880-81 reduced the number of swans to about eight
hundred, an average which has been since maintained.

A considerable amount of discussion has taken place as to whether the so-called
Polish swan (C. immutabilis), distinguished by the smaller size of the tubercle on
the beak, the black edges to the gape, and the slaty legs, as well by the plumage

VOL, IV.—22

338 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS,

of the eygnets being often white from birth, 1s entitled to rank as a distinct species.
It is, however, very probable that the distinctive features of the bird itself may be
due to immaturity; while the white plumage of the cygnets may be merely an
effect of domestication.
Black-Necked The handsome black-necked swan (CL nigricollis) from Chili,
Swan. Argentina, and other southern districts of South America, is easily
distinguished from all the preceding by the black head and neck; the rest of the

BLACK SWAN.

plumage being white, and the lores and base of the beak red. It agrees with the
mute swan in having the tail long and wedge-shaped; but differs in the scalloped
margin of the web of the toes.

This Australian species (C. atratus) differs from all its congeners,
not only in the predominant hue of the adult plumage being blackish,
but also by the young having feathered lores, and likewise by the extreme short-
ness of the tail, and the crispness of the scapular and inner secondary feathers.
The naked parts of the head and the skin at the base of the beak are red, and the

Black Swan.

DUCKS. 339

feathers of the pinion white, but otherwise the bird is black. Inferior in size to
the whooper, this elegant bird is far less shy than the majority of its genus; and
when flying overhead at night utters a decidedly musical call-note. In Victoria
the “Old Bushman” writes that after the young birds ean fly, black swans were
common “on all the large swamps and lagoons; sometimes in good-sized flocks, but
generally in small companies, which I took to be old birds and birds of the year.
Karly in summer they retire to their breeding-haunts, and we saw very little of
them again till the swamps and water-holes filled. They appear to breed in August
and September. The nest is a large heap of rushes, and the female lays five to
seven dirty white eggs, not so large as those of the mute swan.” It is added that
the islands in Westernport Bay are favourite nesting-sites. Being a bird of heavy
flight, the black swan always endeavours to save itself, if possible, by swimming
rather than by taking wing.

Fossil Swans and Remains of the whooper and Bewick’s swan in the superficial

Geese. deposits of the Thames Valley indicate that those birds were contem-
poraries of the mammoth; while, in the Miocene of Malta, Faleoner’s swan
(C. falconert) was of larger size than any existing form, from which it differed by
its extremely short and goose-like toes. Bones of the existing species of European
geese are found in the same deposits as those yielding the remains of modern
swans; while an extinct species (C. @ningensis), of the size of the bean goose,
occurs in the Miocene rocks of Baden.

Comb Duck and Before coming to the more typical ducks, there are three genera

Cotton Teal. demanding a brief notice which, to a certain extent, connect the ducks
with the geese, and thus render the classification of the family so difficult. The
comb ducks, of which there is an Indian (Sarcidiornis melanonotus), an African
(S. africanus), and a tropical American species (S. carwnculatus), are large and
somewhat goose-like birds with short and high beaks, and characterised by the
presence of a blunt spur on the wing, a fleshy protuberance at the base of the
beak of the male, and the glossy blackish plumage of the beak, the wings being
brightly marked like those of ducks. Although the two sexes are very similar, the
males are much larger than the females. The Indian species measures from 30 to
34 inches in length. In habits it approaches the tree-ducks, frequently perching
on trees, and generally nesting in holes in their trunks,

The Indian cotton-teal (Vettapus coromandelianus) is a member of genus also
having one African and two Australian representatives; and somewhat resembles
a miniature of the comb duck, although lacking the comb and spur, and also
differing by the more sombre coloration of the female. The beak, moreover, is
still Slaten and higher at the base; and the tail differs from that of all the
true ducks in having but twelve feathers. The Indian species, which associates
in large flocks, measures 13 or 14 inches in length.

Tree-Ducks or There being no representatives of the group in Britain, the idea
Whistling Teal. of ducks habitually perching in trees may seem to many persons
somewhat unnatural, yet this is the normal habit of the tree-ducks, or, as they are
generally called in India, whistling teal. Although approaching the more typical
ducks in the form of the beak, which is somewhat depressed at the end, this genus
(Dendrocygna) may be distinguished from them by the front of the metatarsus

340 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

being reticulate, in which respect they resemble the geese. The lores are feathered ;
the legs rather long, with the lower portion of the tibia bare; the wings are short
and rounded; and the abbreviated tail is almost concealed by the coverts. The
sexes are nearly alike; and although in some species there is a bright patch or
speculum on the wing, in coloration these birds approach the Egyptian goose and
ruddy sheldrake, to both of which they may be allied. In their voice, as well as in
the plumage undergoing but one moult, and likewise in the vegetable nature of
their food, these birds again approach the geese, and differ from the ducks. Tree-
ducks are distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world ;
and it is highly remarkable that one species (D. viduata) is common to South |
America and West Africa. The general colour of the plumage of these birds is
some shade of brown or chestnut, with the back, wings, and tail variously marked
with darker brown and slaty; but in one of the American species the abdomen is
black, while in a second the under-parts are dirty white. The Indian D. javanica
measures about 20 inches in length. The latter species frequents well-wooded, well-
watered, and well-drained districts throughout India; being found during the
breeding-season in pairs, but in the cold weather and spring associating in flocks,
which, according to Mr. Hume, may number from twenty to two thousand head.
Migratory in their habits, these birds, writes the last-named observer, are very
tame and familiar, “ frequenting village ponds, and living on the trees surrounding
such, even on trees growing inside the enclosures of cottages. They are rather dull
birds, slow on the wing and easily shot, and they have a habit of circling round
and round the gunner when one of their number has been shot, that often proves
fatal to the greater portion of the flock, when it unfortunately falls under the tender
mercies of butchers. When absolutely required for food, a pair or so may be shot,
but they are indifferent eating, and fly so poorly that they really afford no sport.”
Their deficiency in the matter of flight, is, however, counterbalanced by their ex-
pertness in swimming and diving, a wounded bird being most difficult to capture.
When not on the wing, these birds are most commonly seen either feeding on the
water, or resting on trees. Chiefly vegetarians, they subsist largely on rice, as well
as various water-plants, but also consume insects and molluses. They derive their
name of whistling teal from their double hissing whistle-like note, which is always
uttered when the birds are alarmed or about to fly, and is often repeated during
flight, although but seldom heard when they are feeding or at rest. The nest may
be situated either in a hollow tree or between the fork of a large branch, or on the
ground, and if built by the birds themselves is unlined; a deserted crow’s nest is,
however, often taken advantage of. The number of eggs is usually from ten to
twelve. Curiously enough, when the nest is in a tree, the young are carried down
by the parent birds to the water. Mr. Hume has observed the ducklings carried
in the claws of their parents, but it has been stated that they are sometimes
borne on their backs.

The handsome birds known as sheldrakes (Tadorna), which are
near relations of the tree ducks, may be regarded as the first repre-
sentatives of the subfamily Anatine, in which are included all the more typical
ducks. The members of this group are relatively short-necked birds of smaller
size than the true geese, from which they differ in having the front of the

The Sheldrakes.

PLOGCTISS: 341

metatarsus covered with scutes, and the length of that segment shorter than the
third toe; while they are further characterised by having only a small membrane
attached to the first toe. The beak is variable; and the number of tail-feathers
ranges from fourteen to eighteen. In the males, the lower end of the windpipe is
dilated, as it is in the spur-winged and Egyptian goose, the comb ducks, ete. None
of these birds are in the-habit of diving for their food. The sheldrakes resemble
the tree ducks in that the plumage of the two sexes is nearly alike; but in the
ducks there is usually great differences between the two, the males having a very
beautiful coloration, with a bright metallic patch or speculum, on the wing. The
sheldrakes further agree with the tree ducks in having but a single annual moult ;
whereas, in many of the ducks, the males moult their contour-feathers once in the
early summer and again in autumn. ‘The subfamily comprises a very large
number of species arranged under many genera, and having an almost world-wide
distribution, although most widely spread during the winter of the Northern
Hemisphere. The exigencies of space admit of a reference only to some of the
more important genera. In addition to the similarity in the coloration of the
sexes and their single moult, the sheldrakes are characterised by the presence of a
conspicuous white patch on the front of the wing, by the relative length of the
metatarsus (above which a portion of the tibia is bare), and also by the prevalence
of chestnut, black, and white —often in strongly contrasting masses — in the
plumage. The beak is about equal in length to the head, and higher than broad at
the base (near which are situated the nostrils), with the nail bent down and hooked.
In the long and powerful wings, the second quill is the longest. The sheldrakes
form a group of six species, breeding in the temperate regions of Europe, Asia,
Africa, and Australia, and visiting India and the adjacent countries in winter, but
quite unknown in the New World.

Common The handsomest and, in Europe, the best known representatives

Sheldrake. of the genus is the common sheldrake, or burrow duck (7. cornuta),
which is sufficiently characterised by the head and neck being dark glossy green,
below which is a broad collar of white, followed by a band of rich chestnut ex-
tending across the back and breast; the remainder of the plumage being mainly
black and white, with the speculum of the wing marked by green and chestnut on
the secondaries. ‘The beak is red, while the legs and toes are flesh-pink. The
usual length is about 25 inches. This sheldrake is essentially an inhabitant of the
temperate regions of the northern half of the Old World, being a resident through-
out the year in the British Islands, and scarcely ever penetrating within either the
Arctic Circle or the Tropics. From Britain its range extends to Japan, where it is
a winter visitor; and the limits of its migration include Persia, North-Western
India, and North Africa; while it breeds not only in Europe, but in Southern
Siberia, Mongolia, Turkestan, ete. Essentially a coast-bird in Europe, in India the
sheldrake is more commonly found on inland waters, although it haunts the shores
of Sind. On the coasts of Europe these birds prefer sandy districts, especially
those with numerous rabbit-burrows, in which they breed, and hence derive their
name of burrow-duck. Yarrell writes that the nest is always in a burrow of some
sort, and frequently in one describing part of a circle, so that it may be situated as
much as ten or twelve feet from the entrance. It is composed of bents of grass,

342 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

lined with fine soft down. In the Frisian Islands the natives construct artificial
burrows for these birds to nest in, and make a regular harvest of the eggs; the
number laid by a single bird, if some are from time to time removed, reaching as
many as thirty. The note of the sheldrake is a shrill whistle; and its food usually
consists of seaweed and various small marine animals. Its conspicuous white and
dark plumage renders the sheldrake easy of detection among the ducks; but, in
India at least, it is extremely shy and difficult to approach.

COMMON SHELDRAKE (1 nat. size).

A very different looking bird to the last is the ruddy sheldrake,
or Braminy duck (7. casarca), which, while but a rare visitor to the
British Islands and North-Western Europe generally, breeds in Spain, the valley
of the Danube, and southern Russia in great numbers, and thence extends through
Persia, Turkestan, and South Siberia to Amurland and Japan; while in winter it
visits India, Burma, and China in swarms. Although so largely migratory in Asia
and non-migratory in Europe, the occurrence of this species during the winter in
North Africa indicates that some individuals make a periodical move even in the
western portion of its habitat.

The greater part of the plumage of the Braminy is a full orange-brown, but in
the summer the male has a black ring round the neck; while at all times the point
of the wing and wing-coverts are pale buffy white, the primaries, rump, and tail-
feathers blackish leaden grey, and the secondaries rather lighter, with a brilhant

Ruddy Sheldrake.

DUCKS. Ae

bronzy green speculum formed by their outer webs, except at the tips. The beak
and legs are leaden and blackish. In size, this bird corresponds closely with the
ordinary sheldrake. Some of the favourite breeding-places of the Braminy are the
great lakes of the Tibetan Highlands, such as the Pangkong and Tsomorari, on the
former of which the writer has seen them in numbers. In such regions these
birds build in clefts or cavities of rocks; but in other districts the nests are more
commonly placed in burrows and other holes, while in Mongolia they have even
been known to be situated in the fireplaces of deserted villages. Visiting the
country during the winter in myriads, Braminys at that season are to be met with
on every piece of water in India; and, as Mr. Hume observes, no object is more
familiar in river scenery “than a pair of these ducks, standing or squatting, side
by side on the banks, or on some chur [island]; no sounds are more perpetually
heard as one floats lazily down with the stream, than their loud warning notes,
repeated more earnestly as one draws nearer and nearer, and followed by the sharp
patter of their wings as they rise on the approach of the boat. Very wary they
are, and yet not at all afraid of men, so long as they keep just out of gunshot.”
Uneatable except when skinned, and then by no means a bonne bouche, the Braminy
is most cordially detested by the
Indian sportsman, as its harsh
ery and noisy flight puts up all
other water-fowl in the neigh-
bourhood while still beyond
shooting-range.
= EG ae The beautiful
wild duck or mallard
(Anas boscas) is the typical repre-
sentative not only of the true
ducks of the genus to which it
belongs, but likewise of all the
freshwater non-diving ducks of
the present subfamily; the gen-
eral characters of which have
already been mentioned under
the head of the sheldrakes. The WILD DUCK.
true ducks are characterised by
having the broad and depressed beak about equal in length to the head, with
its sides either parallel or partially dilated, and both mandibles provided
with well-marked transverse lamelle on their inner edges; the oval nostrils
being situated in advance of its base. The legs are shorter than in the
sheldrakes, and placed nearly under the centre of the body, with the metatarsus
somewhat rounded in front. The wings are rather long and pointed; while
the tail, which may be either pointed or wedge-shaped, is comparatively
short. Of the true ducks there are numerous species, with a cosmopolitan
distribution; and while in the wild duck the plumage of the two sexes is very
distinct, this is not the case in some species, such as the Indian spot-bill duck

(A. pecilorhyncha).

544 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

Such a familiar species as the British wild-duck—the ancestral
stock of most of our domesticated breeds—might seem to require
little or no description, but the omission of such a notice would entail confusion
later on. The mallard, then, is characterised by the male being more brightly
coloured than the female, except during the breeding-season ; and by the brillianey
of the wing-speculum in both sexes at all times. In winter the adult male has the
four middle tail-feathers curled upwards; the head and neck are brilliant velvety
green, and separated by a white collar from the rich chestnut of the breast; while
the wing-speculum is a brilliant metallic violet, bounded in front by a black and
then a white bar, and behind by two similar bands. The beak is yellowish green,
and the legs and feet orange-red. In length the bird measures about 22 inches.
On the other hand, the female at all times, and the male in the breeding-season,
have the wings coloured as above, and the whole of the rest of the plumage varie-
gated with dusky and ochre, the former appearing in the centre of the feathers
and on the upper-parts, and the latter on the edges of the feathers and lower-parts.
Such characters suffice shortly to distinguish this handsome species from its allies.
As regards its distribution, the mallard may be said to inhabit the whole of the
Northern Hemisphere, although its chief range is restricted to the zone lying
between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic.

The dusky duck (A. obscwra), of eastern North America, may
be taken as an example of a second group of the genus in which
the sexes are alike at all seasons, and there is no white at the base of the wing.

Mallard.

Dusky Duck.

In this bird the prevailing colour of the plumage is dusky, with the feathers bordered
with dull ochre; the head and neck being deep dull buff streaked with dusky, and
the wing-speculum usually deep violet.

This British duck (A. strepera) is a small more markedly distinct
species, sometimes separated as a distinct genus, under the name. of
Chaulelasmus. Structurally it is distinguished from the preceding by the narrower
and shorter beak, in which the edges are not quite parallel, the lamelle are visible
externally, and its upper border is not convex in front; while it is further
distinguished by the dull coloration of the speculum, which is simple black and
white—mainly the latter. The gadwall is a very widely spread species, occurring
in Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America; and is represented in an island of
she South Pacific by the somewhat smaller Coues’ gadwall (A. cowes?).

Limits of space preclude any detailed account of the habits of
the various species of ducks of this genus, but the following excellent
account, referring to the mallard, may be quoted from Macgillivray, who writes
that “marshy places, the margins of lakes, pools and rivers, as well as brooks, rills,
and ditches, are its principal places of resort at all seasons. It walks with ease,
even runs with considerable speed, swims, and on occasion dives, although not in
search of food. Seeds of grasses and other plants, fleshy and fibrous roots, worms,
molluscs, insects, small reptiles, and fishes are the objects of its search. In shallow
water it reaches the bottom with its bill, keeping the hind part of the body erect
by a continued motion of the feet. On the water it sits rather lightly, with the
tail considerably inclined upwards; when searching under the surface, it keeps the
tail flat on the water; and when puddling at the bottom with its hind-part up, it

Gadwall.

Habits.

att

sgh a

DUCKS. 345

directs the tail backward. The male emits a rather low and soft cry between a
croak and a murmur, and the female a louder and clearer jabber. Both on being
alarmed, and especially on flying off, quack; but the quack of the female is much
the louder. When feeding, they are silent, but when satiated they often amuse
themselves with various jabberings, swim about, approach each other, move their
heads backward and forward, “duck” in the water, throwing it up over their
backs, shoot along its surface, half-flying, half-running, and, in short, are quite
playful when in good humour. On being surprised or alarmed, whether on shore
or on water, they spring up at once with a bound, rise obliquely to a considerable
height, and fly off with speed, their hard-quilled wings whistling against the air.
When in full flight, their velocity is very great, being probably a hundred miles in
the hour. Like other ducks, they impel themselves by quickly repeated flaps,
without sailings or undulations.” With regard to the foregoing statement as to
the speed of the mallard’s flight, it is probable that there is considerable exaggera-
tion, since a recent writer records a case where a couple of wild ducks started off at
full speed in front of a train which had disturbed them, and although the train was
running at the rate of only thirty-seven miles per hour, the birds were overtaken.
Like most of its kindred, the mallard usually builds its nest in a depression of the
ground near the margin of water, although at times some distance from the latter.
The nest is lined with dry grass, leaves, or down; the smooth eggs being of a dull
greenish grey colour. The gadwall, however, lays creamy yellow eggs, varying
in number from nine to thirteen. Instances are on record of wild ducks nesting
in trees at considerable heights above the ground, from whence the young
were doubtless carried down in the same manner as those of the tree-ducks.
Essentially a winter migrant when breeding in high northern latitudes, the
mallard appears at that season in immense numbers in certain districts of the
British Islands as well as in the plains of India. These birds are, however, rarely
seen in large flocks, usually associating in parties of from three to ten, and later on
in pairs. In common with other water-fowl, hosts of these ducks are taken in
decoys or shot from punts with swivel-guns.
The Shoveller- The enormous size and ungainly form of their flat beaks serves
Ducks. at once to differentiate the large ducks known as shovellers from all
their allies. In these birds the beak is considerably longer than the head,
compressed at the base, and very broad at the tip, where the upper mandible
overhangs the lower, behind which the lamellz are distinctly exposed. The wings
are pointed, with the first and second quills the longest; and the short and
graduated tail includes fourteen feathers. The legs are very short. As being the
best known representative of the genus, our illustration depicts the common
shoveller (Spatulu clypeata), which in the British Isles is mainly a winter visitor,
and is spread over the entire Northern Hemisphere. In the male the head and
neck are dark metallic green, the breast and lower part of the neck white, the
abdomen and sides chestnut, the wing-speculum green with a white border in
front, the back and inner scapulars dusky brown, and the outer scapulars white ;
the beak being lead colour, and the legs and feet reddish orange, with black nails.
The female lacks the brilliant coloration of her lord, having most of the feathers
mottled with two shades of brown, the back and scapulars being nearly uniform

346 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

dusky, and the beak brown, with its lower mandible orange. In length, the male
reaches about 20 inches. The genus is represented by a second species (S. platalea)
in South America, by a third (S. capensis) in Africa, and by two others in
Australia. Nesting in large numbers near or within the Arctic Circle, and more
sparingly in lower latitudes, the common shoveller commences to arrive in the
British Isles during September, where it sojourns till the following April or May.
In the New World it breeds from Alaska to Texas, and winters as far south as
Guatemala; while it spreads in numbers over the plains of India during the cold
season. Writing of its habits in India, Mr. Hume remarks that the shoveller is very

COMMON SHOVELLER-DUCK,

tame, and in some districts may be met with “on every trumpery little village pond,
half surrounded by huts, the resort of the washermen, and of the entire population
for the purposes of ablution, and of the village herds, driven thither twice a day
for water. Filthy is quite an inadequate expression for many of these reeking
sinks of pollution, but foul or fair the shoveller is equally at home in them, and
may be seen at all hours feeding along the edge, now just in and now just out of
the water, making no epicurean selection, but feeding on pretty well every organic
substance that comes to hand, nice or nasty.” In Britain, on the other hand, it
is a shy and wary bird, frequenting lakes, ponds, and sluggish rivers. The nest,
usually situated on dry ground beneath a tussock of grass, is made of dry grass;
the eggs, which are covered up with down plucked by the female from her own
breast, varying in number from eight to fourteen, and being greenish buff in colour.

DUCKS. 347

The elongation of the middle pair of tail-feathers in the male
give to the almost cosmopolitan pintail duck (Dajila acuta) its
distinctive title, and at the same time atford one of the most striking characteristics
of the genus of which this bird is the typical representative. In both sexes of the
pintail the neck is unusually long and slender; while the beak is about equal in
length to the head, with its edges nearly parallel, although expanding slightly
towards the tip, and with the lamellxe but very little exposed. The wings are long
and pointed, with the first and second quills the longest; and the tail is likewise
sharply pointed in both sexes, the male bird not only having its two central
feathers elongated and pointed, but also showing an equally marked lengthening
of the lanceolate scapular feathers. The legs are rather short, and the webs are
slightly excavated in front. The pintail resembles the mallard in the circumstance
that during the summer the male assumes a plumage resembling that of the female.
At other times the former sex has the head and upper neck dark brown; most
of the upper-parts grey, forming by undulating lines of greyish and blackish;
the front of the neck, breast, and considerable portion of the under-parts, white :
the wing-speculum dark green; and the long tail-feathers black; the beak and
feet being lead-colour or brownish. The female is nearly brown through-
out, the feathers of the upper-parts being mottled with two shades, while
those on the under surface are nearly uniform; the tail-feathers showing white
markings on a brown ground. The length of the male pintail varies from 24 to
28 inches.

Found throughout the circumpolar regions, the pintail is a migratory species,
ranging in winter as far south as Panama and Cuba in the New World, and in the
Old World to the Mediterranean, Persia, Ceylon, China, Borneo, and Japan. Its
main breeding-area in the Old World les to the north of latitude 60°, but it
descends below this limit in North Germany and Russia, and still more so in
Siberia. A silent bird during the day, the pintail utters a low quacking sound at
night. It generally frequents shallow waters, where it feeds upon both vegetable
and animal food; and in winter commonly associates in flocks, which in India may
include from twenty to two hundred, or occasionally thousands of head, and are
at times composed exclusively of male birds. The flight of the pintail is rapid in
the extreme; and this, together with its shy and wary habits, renders it one of the
most difficult ducks to shoot, although the excellence of its flesh renders it of
especial value to the sportsman. When once flushed, pintail almost invariably
fly clean away, and cannot be driven backwards and forwards from one piece of
water to another, like so many other ducks. From the closeness of its breast-
plumage, it is especially necessary in the case of the pintail to allow the bird to
pass before firing. In the Southern Hemisphere there are several allied ducks,
such as the Chilian pintail (D. spinicauda) of lower South America, the South
American Bahama duck (D. bahamensis), and the red-billed duck (D. erythro-
rhyncha) of South Africa, which are considered by many ornithologists as congeneric
with the European species, although by others they are referred to the distinct
genus Pecilonetta. They differ from the true pintail in the slight elongation of
the middle tail-feathers of the male, and the uniformly dull and much spotted
coloration of the two sexes.

Pintailed Ducks.

348 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

The group of beautiful little ducks known as teal, while present-
ing a great general resemblance to the pintails, are distinguished,
in addition to their small size, by their much shorter necks, and the short and
rounded tail of sixteen feathers, the scapulars of the male being also less
pointed and elongated. The beak is about equal in length to the head, with its
edges nearly parallel, and the lamelle very slightly exposed. In the foot the first
toe is very short, and the fourth much shorter than the third. The common teal
(Querquedula crecca) is the best known representative of a group of the genus in
which the nape of the neck in the male is ornamented with a small mane-like
crest. In length this species measures only 14} inches; and in the ordinary
plumage the male is characterised by the vermiculated markings of the back, the
bright green band, bordered with buff, on the side of the head, the rest of the head
chestnut, the wing-speculum black, green, and purple, tipped with white, and the
breast white, spotted with black. The female has the upper plumage mainly
of two shades of brown, and the wing-speculum mainly black, with but little
green. This species is distributed over Europe and Asia generally, breeding in the
British Islands, and visiting India and North Africa in the winter; while it
occasionally occurs in Eastern North America. On the latter continent its place is
taken by the American teal (Q. carolinensis), distinguished by the presence of a
broad white crescent on each side of the breast. The garganey, or summer-teal
(Q. circia), is a larger bird representing a second group of the genus, in which the
head is crestless, the bill longer, and the wing-coverts bluish. In the male, of
which the length is from 15 to 16 inches, the plumage of the back is not
vermiculated; the upper part of the head is dark brown, beneath which is a white
stripe running above the eye and thence down the side of the neck; the wing-
coverts are pale bluish grey, the wing-speculum dull green bordered with white;
the front of the neck and breast brown, and the middle of the abdomen white. The
garganey 1s a migratory species widely distributed over Europe and Asia, occasionally
visiting the British Islands in spring, and wintering in the Mediterranean countries,
India, China, Japan, ete. The American blue-winged teal (Q. discolor) difters by the
distinctly blue wing-coverts, the presence of a white crescent between the beak
and the eye, and by the under tail-coverts being black, instead of white spotted
with brown, in the male. The cinnamon teal (Q. cyanoptera) of Western America
differs from the latter by the chestnut, instead of lead-coloured, head and neck of
the male; and there are several other species, in some of which, such as the Asiatic
clucking teal (Q. formosa), the scapulars are elongated.

The common teal breeds either among reeds and sedge on the
margin of lakes and swamps, or on bogey moors; the nest being a
large structure composed of water-plants, lined with feathers or down, and the
number of eggs in a clutch varying from eight to ten in Britain, and from ten to
fifteen in Lapland. When unmolested, teal feed both by night and day, but when
much shot at they become mainly nocturnal feeders. In India, where they arrive
by thousands in the cold season, teal frequent large sheets of water in the daytime,
and resort to rice-fields and shallow marshes in the evening. Nearly as swift on
the wing as pintail, teal, writes Mr. Hume, “turn and twist in the air with a
rapidity second only to the cotton-teal, and they have a habit after being flushed

Teal.

Habits.

DOCKS. 349

of dropping suddenly again. They swim easily, but not very rapidly, and they
cannot dive to much purpose, so that a wounded bird, unless there are weeds near,
under which it can lie with only the bill above water, has, as a rule, but a poor
chance of escape. On the land, if the ground be fairly smooth, they walk with
tolerable ease ; but it is rare to see them, as one often sees the wigeon, well out on
the dry sward, walking for pleasure.” Their chief food is of a vegetable nature,
but they also consume water-insects and molluscs. The common teal is usually
seen in India in moderate-sized parties, but occasionally in large flocks, although
never in the countless thousands in which the garganey sometimes congregates in
that country. In March, however, they associate in pairs, and then afford very
pretty shooting when lying on the water beneath the steep banks of the larger
rivers. The teal is the easiest of all ducks to net and snare; immense numbers
being captured during the cold weather in India, and kept alive through the
summer in specially constructed “ tealeries.”

The last genus of the subfamily represented in the British Isles
is that which includes the common wigeon (Mareca penelope), the
North American wigeon (J. americana), and the Chilian wigeon (JL. sibilatrix) of
South America. These birds have a bill considerably shorter than the head, and
very like that of the gadwall, but with the lamelle scarcely exposed, and slightly
concave above. The rather long and pointed wings have the first and second
quills the longest ; the tail is short and pointed; and the wing-speculum is largely
black, while there is a white patch on the lesser wing-coverts. In the legs, a small
portion of the tibia is bare, and the first toe has a small membranous lobe. The
male wigeon, which measures from 18 to 20 inches in length, may be recognised
by its chestnut head and neck, minutely spotted with green (except on the forehead
and top, where it is whitish), by the black and white vermiculation of the back
and flanks, the white on the wing-coverts, and by the wing-speculum being formed
by one green band bordered by two equally wide ones of black. The female is a
more soberly coloured bird, lacking the bright head-coloration of the male, and
with a greyish brown speculum., In the late summer the plumage of the male,
although always the brighter, approximates to that of his partner. The slightly
larger American wigeon, has the head and neck of the male whitish, slightly
speckled with black, and with a metallic green patch on the side of the head,
which may extend some distance down the neck; while the female has a black
wing-speculum. In the Chilian wigeon the speculum is velvety black in both sexes.
The common wigeon is a migratory species having a distribution very similar
to that of the teal, breeding occasionally in the northern parts of the British
Islands, as well as in France, Germany, and the Danube Valley, but more generally
in the belt lying between the Arctic Circle and the 60th parallel. At all times
gregarious, these birds are even social in the breeding-season; and whilst in the
British Islands principally frequenting estuaries and the neighbourhood of the
coast, in India they are spread over all the inland waters. Their habit of walking
on land near the margin of water has been already mentioned under the head of
the teal; and it may be added that they differ from those birds in the facility with
which they dive when wounded. They breed in well-watered districts where the
ground is partly swampy and partly covered with low scrub; the nest being

Wigeon.

350 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.
placed near the water beneath tussocks of grass, or at some distance off under the
shelter of a bush. May or June is the usual nesting-time ; and the number of eggs
in a clutch is usually from six to ten, although occasionally more. In its partiality
for grazing the wigeon resembles the geese.
geencner Dusk The brilliantly coloured and elegantly marked plumage and the
and Mandarin- long silky pendent crest of the males, serve at once to distinguish

USES the summer or wood-duck (4x sponsa) of North America and the
mandarin-duck (4x galerita) of China from all the other members of the family.
These birds are further characterised by the beak being much shorter than the
head, with its base elevated, and produced upwards and backwards in an angle .
nearly to each eye, while its tip is depressed and covered with an unusually large
nail. The inner secondaries differ from those of the genera just described, by being
bread and rounded; and the tail-feathers are not pointed. The two species agree
in the general plan of their gorgeous coloration, but are distinguished by a difference
in the arrangement of the feathering at the base of the beak; and also by the
circumstance, that whereas in the mandarin-duck the tail feathers are short and
exceeded in length by the under tail-coverts, in the American species the long and
very broad tail-feathers extend far beyond the coverts. The description of the
coloration of those beautiful birds would occupy too much space.

The summer-duck derives its name from being found in most parts of the
United States at that season, while it takes its second title from its habit of fre-
quenting woods, among the trees of which it flies with the facility of a pigeon.
The beauty of its plumage, its graceful carriage when swimming, and the gentle-
ness of its disposition, make it a universal favourite in America, where it is
frequently induced to nest in gardens. Going about in pairs or small parties, the
summer-duck generally lays its eggs in hollow trees, but may take possession of the
deserted nests of other birds. In diet it is a somewhat miscellaneous feeder; its
food in autumn being largely composed of acorns. The range of this bird extends
from the fur-countries throughout temperate North America. The splendidly
coloured mandarin-duck has one of the scapular feathers expanded into a large fan,
of which the colour is mostly chestnut-brown, but with a broad purple band on the
outer hind border. In South America the place of the summer-duck is taken by
the much larger Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata), distinguished by the great
difference in the size of the two sexes, and the presence of brownish fleshy wattles
on the forehead and lores; the secondaries being greatly lengthened, and the
greater wing-coverts short. The Muscovy, or musky, duck has long been
domesticated in Europe, and interbreeds with the common duck and other species.

Pochards and The pochards and their near allies the scaup-ducks, which may

Scaup-Ducks. }e included in the single genus Fuligula, although divided by some
ornithologists into three generic groups, are the first representatives of a subfamily
distinguished structurally from the preceding one by having a distinct pendent
lobe or membrane attached to the first toe; while in habits they differ by their
practice of diving in search of food, and their extreme expertness on the water. As
a rule, the sexes are different in coloration; and the males undergo a partial second
moult in summer. Of some forty species of diving-ducks, as the whole group may
be collectively designated, the majority are confined to the Northern Hemisphere

DUCKS. 351

and South America, although there are three Australian species, and another in
Africa.

The pochards and their congeners are characterised by the beak being not
longer than the head, and having its base somewhat elevated, and its broad tip
depressed ; while the tail-feathers are short, moderately stiff, rounded at the tips, and
more than half concealed by the coverts. The wings are rather short and pointed, and
the metatarsus is characterised by its lateral compression. The red-crested pochard
(Ff. rufina) differs from the other members of the genus in the head of the male
being rufous and furnished with a full, soft, rounded, and bushy crest; the beak
being vermilion, the front of the neck and breast rich dark brown, and the wing-
speculum white. The female is devoid of a crest, and has the head and neck
yellowish white speckled with black, and no white speculum. This species inhabits
Southern and Eastern Europe (occasionally ranging northwards to the British
Islands), Northern Africa, and India. On the other hand, the widely distributed
scaup-duck (F. marila), of Europe, Asia, and the whole of North America, may be
taken as the representative of a second group (the genus Fulix of some) in which
the adult males have no erest, but the whole of the head and neck of a uniform
black colour; the beak being about equal in length to the second toe, with its
nail differing from that of the red-crested pochard by being small and narrow,
in place of large and broad. In the male the head, neck, and breast are purplish
black, the back and scapulars white with black vermiculations, and the wing-
speculum and under-parts white. A third group (dithyia of some) is represented
by the common pochard (F. ferina) of Europe and Northern Asia, and the red-
headed (F. americana) and eanvas-backed duck (Ff. vallisneria) of North America,
as well as other forms. In all these the beak is rather longer than the inner toe,
and the head and neck of the adult males are red. Finally, we have a fourth group
(Nyroca) represented by the white-eyed pochard (Ff. nyroca) of Europe and Asia,
and the Australian white-eye (fF. australis), which take their name from the white
ring formed by the iris of the eye. In the adult male of the European species the
head, neck, and upper breast are chestnut-brown, the wing-speculum white, and
the beak leaden-blue; while in the female the head and neck are pale chestnut.

During its sojourn in the British Islands from October to March or April, the
common pochard is generally met with on the coast, although in other districts,
and especially India, it is an inland bird at the same season. <A bad walker, this
duck is essentially a diver and swimmer, associating in India in immense flocks on
open sheets of water of medium depth. These birds feed chiefly by night, but
in undisturbed districts they may be seen diving at all hours of the day in search
of the stems and roots of water-plants, which constitute their chief food. The
same habits characterise the American canvas-back, which is met with in countless
numbers on the Chesapeake, where it dives for vallisneria grass, locally known as
celery. Both these ducks are most excellent table-birds; and while in India the
pochard is taken by hundreds in nets placed in the water, the canvas-back is
usually shot in America, one device being to attract the birds within range by
going out at night in a boat furnished with a powerful lamp and reflector in the
bows. Such pochards as remain to breed in the British Isles usually nest in May
and the first half of June; the nest being constructed of rushes, grass, or flags,

352 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

sometimes placed among the rank vegetation near the margin of the water, but at
other times being a floating structure. The greenish grey eggs vary from eight to
twelve or even fourteen in number. Writing of the red-crested pochard, Mr. Hume
observes that he has “ watched flocks of them, scores of times, diving for an hour at
a time, with a pertinacity and energy unsurpassed by any other wild-fowl.
Examine closely their favourite haunts, and you will find these to be almost invari-
ably just those waters in which they must dive for their food.” Such haunts being
deep broads where the beds of water-weed are several feet below the surface.
Golden-Eye and The pretty ducks bearing these names, together with Barrow’s
BuffelHead. § wolden-eye (Clangula islandica) of North America, constitute a genus:
characterised by the beak being much shorter than the head, and high and broad
at the base, but depressed at the tip, where it is covered by a rather small and
bent-down nail. The nostrils are situated near the middle of the beak, in which
the lamellz are concealed by the overlapping of the upper mandible. The wings
are pointed and rather short, with the first quill the longest ; and the tail of sixteen
feathers is rounded and of medium length. In the male the coloration is pied
black and white, while it is brown and white in the female. The golden-eye (C.
glaucion) takes its name from the golden-yellow hue of the iris, and the male may
be recognised by the metallic green of the head and upper neck, the white patch at
the base of the beak below the eye, and by the scapular region being striped with
white. This species, which measures from 16 to 19 inches in length, inhabits
Northern Europe and Asia, migrating south in winter; and is represented by a
variety in North America. It always builds in holes in trees at a considerable
height above the ground. Of the American species, Barrow’s golden-eye may be
distinguished by the white patch behind the beak extending to a point above the
level of the eye; while in the smaller buffel-headed duck (C. albeola), which has
occasionally straggled across the Atlantic, the white patch on the head of the male
is placed behind the eye and extends right across the occiput.

The well-known harlequin duck (Cosmonetta histrionica), of the
northern latitudes of both hemispheres, belongs to an allied genus,
distinguished by the larger size of the nail on the beak, the presence of only
fourteen feathers in the tail, and by the near equality in the length of the first
and second quills of the wing. The male is characterised by the general leaden
hue of its plumage, relieved by white markings on the head and white collars on
the lower neck and breast, as well as by the purple wing-speculum; while the
female is greyish brown, with white patches on the head. In summer an inland
species associating in pairs, in winter the harlequin duck collects in flocks to
frequent sheltered bays and inlets on rocky coasts. It is an occasional straggler to
Britain, but is unknown on the Continent.

Harlequin-Duck.

The Long-Tailed Easily recognised by the great elongation of the two middle tail-
Duck. feathers of the male, the long-tailed duck (Harelda glacialis)

occupies in respect of this feature a position among the diving series analogous to
that held by the pintail in the non-diving group. In both sexes the beak is very
short and tapering, with a large decurved nail at the tip, and sub-basal nostrils.
The wings are rather short and pointed; the scapular feathers of the male are
lengthened; and the tail, which has fourteen feathers, is short and graduated in

DIGGS: 258

the female. In the male bird, of which the length is from 22 to 26 inches, the
prevailing colour of the head and neck in the ordinary dress is white, with an
oval brown patch on the sides of the latter; the breast, middle of the back, rump,
and middle tail-feathers are black; the scapulars are striped with white; and the
remaining tail-feathers and under-parts pure white. The female is a more sombre-
coloured bird, with the sides of the head white and those of the neck brown.

As its Latin name implies, the long-tailed duck is an essentially Arctic species,
ranging to the most northerly known lands of both hemispheres, and not generally
migrating very far south in winter, although it has been known to reach Northern
Italy. Not uncommon as a winter visitor to Britain, it regularly frequents at
that season the Caspian, Northern China, Japan, and the northern United States.
Found in numbers on the Kara Sea, and breeding in Novaia Zemlia, Northern
Russia, and all through North Siberia, this duck is mainly marine in its habits,
feeding on molluscs, crustaceans, and small fishes, in search of which it dives with
remarkable expertness. During the breeding-season it resorts, however, to fresh-
waters, on the margins of which its nests are constructed among low bushes. The
note of the male is loud, but almost indescribable in words; and when flying
the members of this sex are said to present an exceedingly graceful appearance,
moving with very rapid strokes of the wings, with the long tail-feathers
floating behind.

Well known on account of the beautifully soft down collected
from their nests, the eiders, Somateria, are best characterised by the
elongated scapulars and emerald or pale green markings on the heads of the males ;
these two characters serving to distinguish them from other diving-ducks. Both
sexes may be recognised by the beak being shorter than the head, and swollen and
elevated at the base, with small and lateral nostrils, but more especially by the
feathers of the forehead extending downwards nearly to the nostrils between its
divided upper portion. Generally, the prevailing colours of the plumage of the
males are black and white. The eiders are now represented by six well-defined
species, confined to the northern regions of the Old World; three of which
occur in the British Islands, although two are more occasional visitors. The
common or true eider (S. mollissima), which is mainly confined to the Eastern
Hemisphere, and is the only resident British species, may be recognised by the
upper part of the back and scapulars of the male being white in the breeding
plumage, while the top of the head and under-parts are black; the female being
pale rufous brown, with darker markings. Young males are at first lke the
females; but in the first year, as shown in the upper figures of our illustration on
next page, the wing-coverts and secondaries become white, and in the third year
the full plumage is assumed. In summer, with the second moult, old males become
almost black. In the king-eider (S. spectabilis), which is cireumpolar, although
but a rare visitor to Britain, the male in breeding-plumage has the upper part of
the back white, but the elongated scapulars black, and also a black chevron on the
throat with its apex on the chin. On the other hand, in the handsome Steller’s
eider (S. stellerz), which is a still more exclusively Arctic bird, the adult male in
nuptial plumage has the whole back black, the long scapulars white on their inner,
and bluish black on their outer webs, and a bluish black collar on the neck.

VOL. I1V.—23

Eider-Ducks.

354 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

All the eiders are exclusively dwellers on rocky coasts, where
they subsist mainly on molluscs and crustaceans; and while they are
birds of slow and heavy, although powerful flight, and are at the same time
clumsy walkers on land, in the sea, which is their true home, they are most expert
divers and swimmers. Iceland and the Farn Islands are well-known breeding-
resorts.of the common eider; and the following account of a colony on a small

Habits.

EIDER-DUCKS AND NEST (;8; nat. size).

island near the former locality is taken from Mr. C. W. Sheppard. On landing,
that observer writes, “the ducks and their nests were everywhere. Great brown
ducks sat upon their nests in masses, and at every step started from under our
feet. It was with difficulty we avoided treading on some of the nests. On the
coast of the opposite shore was a wall built of large stones, just above the high-
water level, about 3 feet in height, and of considerable thickness. At the bottom,
on both sides of it, alternate stones had been left out, so as to form a series of

LDR CTES: 256

square apartments for the ducks to nest in. Almost every compartment was
occupied, and as we walked along the shore a long line of ducks flew out, one
after the other. The surface of the water also was perfectly white with drakes,
who welcomed their brown wives with loud and clamorous cooing. The house
itself was a marvel. The earthen walls that surrounded it, and the window-
embrasures were occupied by ducks. On the ground the house was fringed with
ducks. On the turf slopes of its roof we could see ducks, and a duck sat on the
door-scraper. The grassy banks had been cut into square patches, about 18
inches having been removed, and each hollow had been filled with ducks. <A
windmill was infested, and so were all the outhouses, mounds, rocks, and crevices.
The ducks were everywhere. Many were so tame that we could stroke them on
their nests; and the good lady told us that there was scarcely a duck on the
island that would not allow her to take its eggs without flight or fear.” In all
cases the eiders build on the ground, and their not very numerous egos. are of
some shade of green. In Labrador, where the numbers of these valuable birds
have been greatly reduced by “eggers,” Mr. A. 8. Packard, writing of his
experiences many years ago, observes that in the middle of June “all the eiders
were busy in making their nests and in laying their eggs. The old or completed
nests contained a great mass of down, and were twelve to fifteen inches in outside
diameter, the downy moss in which the eggs sank being five or six inches high:
the newer nests were without down; and there were about five eggs to a nest.
Most of the nests which we saw were built on low land near pools, and not far
from the sea-water, in a dense thicket of dwarf spruce-trees.” The species referred
to in this account is the American eider (S. dresseri), which differs from the
common kind by the greater convexity of the beak, and the greater development
of the elongated scapulars. The nest is formed of seaweed, lined with down from
the body of the female bird; the lining being gradually added during the month
occupied by incubation, till at length it reaches such an amount as to completely
conceal the eggs. The product of down yielded by a single nest is about one-sixth
of a pound; the local value of the commodity varying from twelve to fifteen
shillings per pound. Although such thoroughly gregarious birds at all seasons, it
is somewhat remarkable that the males of none of the eiders take any share in the
work of incubation.

The pied Labrador duck (S. labradoria) is a species which may be included
among the eiders, although frequently referred to a distinct genus (Camptolemus).
A handsome bird, formerly abundant on the coast of Labrador and the mouth of
the St. Lawrence, it appears to have become extinct since 1852.

The black marine ducks known as scoters, derive their scientific
title (Hdemia) from their swollen or basally tuberculate beaks,
which are deep, large, and strong, with the tip much depressed, and entirely covered

The Scoters.

by the large, flat nail; the oval and lateral nostrils being placed near the middle
of the beak. The wings are pointed and rather short, and the graduated tail is
likewise short and pointed. Placed relatively far back on the body, the legs are
noticeable for the shortness of the metatarsus; while the large feet are char-
acterised by the second toe being fully as long as the third. In the males the

colour is black, with or without white on the head or wing; while in the females

356 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

it is dusky greyish brown. The scoters, of which there are five species, although
confined to the Northern Hemisphere, are far less exclusively Arctic birds than the
eiders. The common scoter (Z. nigra), which inhabits a large portion of Europe
and Northern Asia, is characterised by the entire plumage of the male being black.
In Japan and North America it is replaced by the American scoter (ZH. americana),
in which the whole of the protuberance at the base of the beak is orange-yellow,
instead of mainly blackish blue. The velvet scoter (4. fusca), which is also a
winter visitor to the British Islands, although far less common than the preceding,
differs in that the male has a small white patch behind the eye, and a white
speculum on the wing. Widely spread along the more northern coasts of Europe.
and Asia, this scoter is represented by a variety in North America. As another
very well-marked member of the genus, mention may be made of the North
American surf-scoter (Hf. perspicillata), of which stragglers occasionally reach
Britain. The male may be recognised in its breeding-plumage by the presence of
one broad patch of white on the forehead and another on the nape of the neck.
All the scoters are regular migrants, and marine and gregarious in their habits;
the common species assembling in such countless numbers on the British coasts in
winter, as on some occasions to cause the water to appear literally black. Scoters
generally arrive from their summer-quarters in September and October, and return
in the following April or May. During the breeding-season the flocks of adults
break up into pairs; although this is not the case with the immature birds, which
do not breed during their first spring, but remain congregated throughout the
summer. Moreover, in the case of both the common and the surf-scoter, flocks of
these immature birds frequent the British Islands during summer, instead of going
northwards. All the scoters are late breeders; the nidification of the common
species not beginning in Iceland till the middle of June, while in Arctic Russia it
is deferred for a fortnight or so later. Islands in the rivers and lakes of the
Arctic tundras, where the ground is covered with dwarf birch and willow, form the
favourite breeding-grounds of the scoters; and the eggs, which are usually from
five to nine in number, are deposited in a mere hole in the ground; those of the
common species being greyish buff in colour, with a dull exterior. Although
rather awkward walkers, all the scoters fly with rapidity, and are fully equal to
their allies in swimming and diving. Their food in winter consists of various
small aquatic invertebrates, and in summer of water-plants; their flesh being
almost uneatable. Remains of extinct scoters, which have been referred to the
genus Huligula, used in a wide sense, occur in the Lower Miocene strata of France,
which have also yielded others belonging to typical ducks and described as
Anas.
The Stiff-Tailed The genus Hrismatura comprises species known as stiff-tailed
Ducks. ducks, all of which are lacustrine rather than marine in their habits,
and many of which are characteristic of the Southern Hemisphere. While agreeing
with the preceding genera in their broad and depressed beaks, these ducks are dis-
tinguished by the feathers of the tail being narrow and very rigid, with the inferior
surface grooved. Moreover, the tail-coverts are so short as searcely to overlap the
base of the tail, which is rather long and graduated, and may contain as many as
twenty-four feathers. All are said to be expert divers, and in flight and habits some

MERGANSERS. 357

resemble more a grebe than a duck. Southern Europe, North Africa, and parts of
Asia are the home of the white-faced stiff-tailed duck (2. lewcocephala), distinguished
by the breadth and size of the
nail at the end of the beak. In
other species, such as 4. rwbida,
of North, and the ferruginous
stiff-tailed duck (4. ferruginea)
of South America, as well as in
the Austrahan LH. australis, the
nail is very small and narrow.
The great musk-duck (Biziwra
lobatw) of Australia constitutes
a separate genus, characterised
by the marked superiority in
the size of the male over the
female, and the presence of a
large lobe of skin depending
from the chin of the former sex.
Here also may be mentioned
the steamer-duck (Tachyeres cinereus) of the Falkland Islands and Patagonia.
Under the general designation of mergansers may be included a
group af diving and fish-eating birds, which differ from the other
members of the family in the extreme narrowness of their beaks, although resem-
bling the diving-ducks in the structure of their feet. The beak, which may be either
longer or shorter than the head, is, in addition to its narrowness, straight and
slender, furnished on its edges with saw-like lamelle, and terminates in a con-
spicuous hooked nail; the longitudinally elliptical nostrils being lateral and placed
near the middle of its length. The wings are of moderate length, with the first
and second quills the longest; and the relatively short legs are placed somewhat
backwardly on the body. Of the five species of mergansers, four are inhabitants of
the northern portions of both hemispheres, migrating southwards in winter; while
the fifth (Mergus australis) is from the Aucklands. All the four northern species
are met with in the British Islands, although two are but casual visitants, and only

FERRUGINOUS STIFF-TAILED DUCK.

The Mergansers.

one is a regular breeder.

| The goosander (JZ merganser), which is a species occasionally breeding in
Britain, belongs to a group in which the beak is longer than the head, and has
long recurved serrations; the metatarsus being rather long, and a depressed and
pointed crest present in both sexes. A handsomely coloured bird, the adult male
goosander in its breeding-plumage is characterised by its vermilion beak and the
shining greenish black head and upper neck, as well as by the lower neck and
under-parts being whitish, with a rosy tinge on the breast. The upper part of the
back and scapulars are black, as are the primaries; the lower back, tail-coverts,
and tail-feathers are ashy grey; and the point of the wing and wing-coverts are
white. In the female the head and upper neck are pale chestnut, and the upper
parts and wings, except the white secondaries, mainly grey. In length the male
varies from 25 to 28 inches. The goosander ranges over the northern portions of

358 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

the Old World, migrating in winter to the northern shores of the Mediterranean,
India, and Japan, and being replaced in North America by a variety. Nearly
allied is the red-breasted merganser (JL. serrator), which has a circumpolar dis-
tribution, and breeds regularly in Scotland and Ireland. It is a rather smaller
bird than the goosander, the male having the head and upper neck greenish black,
the middle of the neck (except a dark streak behind) white, the lower neck and
upper breast buff streaked with black, the white feathers on the sides of the breast

THE GOOSANDER (2 nat. size).

bordered with black, and those on the flanks vermiculated with blackish grey.
Very different from either of the above is the hooded merganser (I. cucullatus),
distinguished by the black beak being shorter than the head, with smaller
serrations, by the shorter metatarsus and longer wing, and more especially by the
full semicircular, erect and compressed crest of hair-like feathers. In the male the
head and upper neck are black, with the exception of the hinder part of the crest,
which is white edged with black ; and the white breast is marked on each side by
two black crescentic bands. Mainly North American, where it ranges from Alaska
to Mexico, this merganser is a casual visitor to Europe. Still more different is the

MERGANSERS. 359

beautiful smew (J. albellus), in which the bill is much shorter and deeper, with
small and inconspicuous serrations, and the crest much smaller than in the preceding
species ; while the tail has frequently sixteen, in place of the usual eighteen feathers.
The male smew, which varies from 17 to 18 inches in length, has a greenish black
patch on the occiput, extending in a point on each side of the head, and another
between the eye and the beak, but the rest of the head, neck, and under-parts
mostly white; the plumage of the upper-parts being pied with black, brown, grey,
and white. Females have the head and back of the neck mainly reddish brown.
with an inconspicuous crest. The smew is an inhabitant of the more Arctic regions
of the Old World in the breeding-season, rarely visiting the British Islands in

HOODED MERGANSER.

winter, but to the eastward migrating as far south as the north of Africa, Northern
India, and Japan.

Although in Europe the mergansers very generally frequent the
coast, those species which visit India are more commonly observed on
inland waters. All are strong, albeit somewhat heavy fliers, and most expert

Habits.

swimmers and divers; but on the land their movements are awkward and ungainly.
Their food consists entirely of fish, molluscs, and crustaceans, most of which are
procured by diving; and in consequence of this diet their flesh is unpalatable in
the extreme. When fishing in flocks, as is often the habit of the goosander, the
whole party may frequently be seen to dive simultaneously; although not un-
commonly a few remain above water as if to act as sentinels. While the red-
breasted merganser nests on the ground among bushes, heather, or long grass, the
goosander nearly always, if not invariably, selects a hollow tree, or, failing that, a
cleft in a rock, as a breeding-place, sometimes taking advantage of the nest of a
crow or other bird. The creamy-white eggs of the latter species are from eight to
twelve in number; and the young, as soon as hatched, are carried down one by one
from the nest to the water in the beak of their parent. When floating at ease the
goosander sits as high in the water as a duck, but when swimming settles down

360 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.

as deep as a cormorant, while when pursued nothing more than the head and neck
appears. On the larger Indian rivers, writes Mr. Hume, “they will float down
with the stream for a couple of miles, and if not hungry, they rise and fly back
again; but more commonly they fish their way back, diving incessantly the whole
way, and, despite their activity, taking a long time to make their way back from
where they started from. When gorged, they often sit on some rock in the middle of
the water, sitting very upright and cormorant-like, often half opening their wings to
the sun. In the interior, where you find them in smaller streams, they are rarely
in parties of more than three or four—most generally at that time in pairs
then they are either flying up-stream or floating down, twisting round and round
in the rapids, or fishing vigorously in some deep pool near the foot of a waterfall
or rapid.” Although generally silent, mergansers utter at times, especially when
on the wing, a harsh, unmusical kurr. Three beautifully coloured birds from the
mountains of Chili, Peru, and Ecuador, constitute the allied genus Merganetta.

and

THE SCREAMERS.
Order PALAMEDEXZ. Family PALAMEDEIDZ.

If we examine the skeleton of any ordinary bird, such as the one represented
on p. 292 of the preceding volume, it will be noticed that some of the anterior ribs
are provided with backwardly-directed projections, known as uncinate processes.
If, however, we observe that of one of the peculiar South American birds designated
screamers, we shall not fail to be struck with the absence of these processes, and as
they are present in all other birds and many reptiles, it will be evident that the
screamers are a very specialised group, although in some other ways they are
generalised. Although these strange birds exhibit certain resemblances in their
internal anatomy to the storks and cranes, it is now generally considered that their
nearest affinities are with the ducks and flamingoes. Agreeing with those two
groups in the features mentioned at the commencement of the chapter, the screamers
are readily distinguished from both by their short hen-like beaks, and medium-
sized legs, of which the toes are not completely webbed, but furnished with long
claws, the claw of the first toe being specially elongated. Internally, in addition to
the absence of uncinate processes, they are characterised by the presence of distinct
basipterygoid processes on the rostrum of the skull, by the number of vertebree in
the neck being more than eighteen (which is not the case in the two allied orders),
and likewise by the absence of any bare spinal tract in the plumage of the upper-
parts; while the angle of the lower jaw, although recurved, is not much produced
backwards. Another peculiarity is to be found in the circumstance that the skin
when touched is yielding and crackling, owing to the presence of a layer of air-
cells, which communicates to it a bubbly appearance. In colour and texture their
egos resemble those of the geese.

The screamers are birds of the size of a swan, but of totally different appear-
ance, having a hen-like beak, with a waxy growth at the base, medium-sized neck,
very inflated crop, a pair of powerful spurs on the front of each wing, and the long-
toed legs bare to a considerable distance above the ankle-joint. Although the

SCREAMERS. 361

second and third toes are free, the third and fourth are connected at the base by a
web, The long and powerful wings have the third quill the longest; the rounded
tail has twelve feathers; and the contour feathers are soft and on the neck narrow.
Both sexes are alike in plumage. The screamers are divided into two genera, of
which the first is represented by the horned screamer (Palamedea cornuta) of
Guiana and Amazonia, characterised by the presence of a slender horn-like
process, 5 or 6 inches arising from the middle of the head, and curving upwards

HORNED SCREAMER (+ nat. size).

and forwards. Of the two spurs on the wing, the foremost is by far the longer
and more powerful. In colour, the soft feathers on the top of the head are whitish
grey, with blackish tips; those of the cheeks, throat, upper neck, wings, and tail
are dark brown; the inner secondaries and greater wing-coverts having a greenish
metallic sheen, and the smaller wing-coverts yellowish roots; while the feathers
of the lower neck and upper breast are silver-grey, broadly banded with black, and
those of the abdomen pure white. The iris is orange, the beak blackish brown

362 : FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS.,

with a whitish tip, the horn whitish grey, and the foot ashy grey. The second
genus, Chauwna, has no horn on the head, and is represented by the crested
screamer, or chaj& (C. chavaria) of Argentina, and the Derbian screamer
(C. derbiana) of Colombia. In the former the general colour of the plumage is
slaty blue, with a black ring round the neck, while the naked skin round the eyes
and the legs are red. According to Mr. W. H. Hudson, to whom we are indebted
for a good account of the Argentine species, these birds only utter their powerful
scream of alarm occasionally ; while during the night, or when soaring high in the
air, they give vent to somewhat melodious notes, audible when the birds are too
high up to be visible. “At certain times,” writes the author just mentioned, “in |
districts favourable to them, the chajas often assemble in immense flocks, thousands
of individuals being sometimes seen congregated together; and in these gatherings
the birds often all sing in concert. They invariably—though without rising—
sing at intervals throughout the night, ‘counting the hours, as the Gauchos say,
the first song being about nine o'clock, the second at midnight, and the third just
before dawn, but the hours vary in different districts.’ Although living for
a considerable part of the year in large flocks, the screamers pair for life, and
during the breeding-season are only to be seen in couples. The chaja (pronounced
chaha), or Argentine species, breeds among the rushes of lagoons, and during a
visit to Argentina in 1893, I had, while staying at the estancia of Las Bandurrias,
near Colina, on the Great Southern Railway of Buenos Aires, the opportunity of
observing the habits of a pair which were nesting in a small laguna a couple
of miles or so from the house. The laguna in question contained large growths of
reeds and flags, forming masses intersected by open channels, and at the time of
my visit (the latter part of October) growing to a considerable height above the
water. Like other similar spots in this part of Argentina, it was tenanted by
large flocks of ducks and coots, while black-necked swans. small parties of the
lovely red South-American flamingo, and a few storks were generally also to be
seen. On my first visit to the laguna, for the purpose of duck-shooting, I was
puzzled by seeing a pair of large grey birds, with short beaks, and looking some-
what like huge grey geese, swimming about unconcernedly among the other
denizens of the lagoon, since I had not the least idea such was the habit of the
chaja. On wading into the water, and approaching the birds, I was, however, soon
convinced, both from their appearance and voice, that they were really chajas.
They allowed me to approach within easy gun-shot, when they rose heavily and
flapped slowly to the bank, where they alighted. That they had a nest among the
reeds in the middle of the laguna I felt assured, but the depth of water prevented
my wading to the spot. I had, however, reason to believe that the young were
already hatched and swimming about among the reeds, so that, had I sueceeded in
reaching the nest, my labour would have been in vain. As soon as I reached the
shore, the chajas once more returned to the water, and recommenced swimming
about among the ducks. During several subsequent visits to the same spot, I
nearly always saw the birds swimming far out in the water; and, indeed, I think
it was only once or twice that I observed them on land. It is therefore evident
that during the nesting-season this pair of chajas should be described as thoroughly
aquatic in their habits.

S
S

A FLIGHT OF PIGEONS,

CEPA E EAR xeVele

THE PIGEONS AND SAND-GROUSE.

Order COLUMB.

THE pigeons form such a well-marked group that there is but little difficulty in
recognising any of their numerous representatives at a glance. In all, the moderately
large head is set on a graceful neck, and the body is rather compact and stoutly
built. Swollen at the extremity, the beak has its basal portion covered with a soft
skin, in which open the nostrils. The legs are coated with hexagonal scales, and
are usually more or less thickly feathered on the upper-part, although sometimes
naked ; the feet have four toes, the first of which is placed on the same level as
the others. With the exception of the ground-doves, in which the wings are short
and rounded, most of the living species have long, powerful quill-feathers, but the
dodo and solitaire were incapable of flight. As regards osteological characters the
pigeons have a cleft (schizognathous) palate, in which respect they and the sand-
grouse differ from all the preceding groups ; the upper bone of the wing or humerus
is provided with a triangular deltoid crest, very similar to that of the sand-grouse,
to which is attached the great pectoral muscle; thus rendering these birds capable
of protracted and powerful flight. The majority of the pigeons are indeed excellent
flyers, capable of traversing enormous distances in an ineredibly short time: as an

364 PIGEONS AND SAND-GROUSE.

example of which we may mention the performances of the carrier-pigeons. AlI
pigeons are provided with a large crop, which becomes glandular during the breeding-
season, and then secretes a milky fluid to moisten the half-digested food on which
the young are nourished. The amount of food which a pigeon can consume in a day
is almost incredible, it being
probable that one of these
birds is capable of eating a
quantity more than equal its
own weight. Like the sand-
grouse, pigeons drink by
thrusting the bill into the
water and retaining it there
till they have quenched their
thirst. All pigeons pair for
life, and both sexes take part

UPPER PORTION OF THE RIGHT HUMERUS OF (a) SAND-GROUSE,

(b) FOWL, AND (c) PIGEON, in the building of the nest,
(From Garrod, Proc. Zool, Soc., 1874.) incubation, and rearing of the

young. When hatched, the
latter are naked and helpless, and thus need care from both parents. The bill of
the young is larger and more fleshy than that of the adult, and during the operation
of feeding, the old bird thrusts its beak inside that of its offspring, and injects the
semi-liquid nutriment. The nest is a simple structure composed of twigs, and
generally placed in a tree; the eggs never more than two in number, being invari-
ably pure white.

THE GREEN, PAINTED, AND FRUIT-PIGEONS.
Family TRERONIDZ.

This family contains a large number of arboreal species inhabiting Africa,
South-Eastern Asia, and the islands of the Eastern Archipelago generally, distin-
guished by their rather short legs, which are feathered for more than half their
length, and are usually shorter than the middle toe and claw; the soles of the feet
being very broad, and the skin of each toe expanded on the sides. Of these birds
three subfamilies may be distinguished, the first containing the green pigeons, which
have the bill rather thick. The plumage, with a few exceptions, in which it is
chocolate-brown, is mostly green, and most species have a yellow band across the
wings. In the first three genera the base of the bill is soft, and the sheath of
the upper mandible does not reach the feathers of the forehead.

Wedge-Tailed The wedge-tailed green pigeons (Sphenocercus) include seven

Green Pigeons. (ifferent species, with wedge-shaped tails, and the middle feathers
more or less pointed, from South-Eastern Asia; the best known being the Himalayan
and Burmese forms (S. apicicauda and SN. sphenurus). The former is distinguished
by having the under surface of the tail black, with a broad grey band across the
extremity, and the middle pair of tail-feathers long and pointed ; while in the latter
the under surface of the tail is uniform grey, and the middle pair of feathers are
less pointed and much shorter. The habits of this and the other green pigeons are

GREEN PIGEONS. 365

very similar. The males are not difficult to identify, but the females often resemble
one another very closely. Writing of S. sphenwrus, My. Oates says that it is found
in the thick forest country of Burma, frequenting trees which bear fruit, and going
about in flocks. It is a summer visitor to the Himalaya, and breeds from April to
July, constructing a nest of twigs on the outer branches of trees. In October it
collects in small flocks of six or eight, and quits the country. It is rather
shy, and its note is a soft, cooing whistle ; its food consisting entirely of small fruits,
which are swallowed whole.

;
aeas
BR
“=
ee
U

ABYSSINIAN WALIA-PIGEON,

The African genus Vinago has the tail-feathers almost even,
the outer pair being little shorter than the middle, and the feathers
on the legs conspicuously yellow, while the forehead in some species is more or less
naked, The Abyssinian walia (V. walia) is met with in the subtropical belt, and
rarely seen on the highlands, being first observed at an elevation of about two
thousand feet, and not extending above six thousand. Its call is a liquid whistle,
very similar to that of the Indian green pigeon in tone, but with the concluding
portion a little harsher and more prolonged. It feeds on fruits, especially figs,
and, like its allies, is delicious eating. A third genus (Crocopus) inhabiting the
Indo-Chinese countries resembles Vinago in having the feathers on the legs
yellow, but is distinguished by the first three flight-feathers being pointed. The

Other Genera,

306 PIGEONS AND SAND-GROUSE.

nest is roughly made of sticks, and is usually situated rather high up in a
mango-tree.

The next genus (Osmotreron) contains seventeen species, inhabiting South-
Eastern Asia and the Malay Archipelago, and distinguished by having the feathers
on the legs of a greenish or whitish colour. Of its members we may mention the
erey-fronted green pigeon (0. malabarica), which, like its allies, closely resembles
the thick-billed species in its habits and mode of life. In the male the upper part
of the head is grey shading into olive-green on the back of the neck, the upper
part of the back maroon, and the rest of the upper-parts and middle tail-feathers
olive-green ; the lateral tail-feathers grey, with a black band across the middle; .
the quills and wing-coverts black, the latter edged with yellow; and the under-
parts olive-yellow. The female has the upper part of the back olive-coloured.

In the three remaining genera the sheath of the upper mandible reaches the
feathers of the forehead. The typical genus, Treron, includes only two species
inhabiting South-Eastern Asia. Both these birds have the third flight-feather
deeply scooped about the middle of the inner web; the thick-billed green pigeon
(LT. nipalensis) being distinguished by having the grey colour of the cap darker,
and not extending over the upper part of the cheeks. The latter inhabits the South-
Eastern Himalaya, extending to the Malay Peninsula; and is very common in
Tenasserim, where it occurs in moderately large flocks, feeding on small fruits.
They feed in the morning and evening, and are noisy and quarrelsome. Their
flight is rapid, and they frequent dense forest, thin tree-jungle, and even gardens,
breeding in February and March, the nests being flimsy little platforms of straw
placed about ten feet above the ground. In the Philippine Phabotreron the five
species are peculiar in having the general colour of their plumage chocolate-
brown; P. amethystina being a handsome bird with the hind-neck of a beautiful
amethyst colour, and the upper-parts with bronze reflections.

See toute The second group of the family are the painted pigeons, which

include a number of small, brilliantly-coloured species, with their
plumage generally variegated with patches of different colours, many of them
being birds of surpassing beauty. They may be distinguished from the last group
of green pigeons by the more slender bill, which is not very distensible at the base :
and in this respect, as well as in their smaller size, they differ from the true fruit-
pigeons described below. Of the five genera, by far the largest and most important
is Ptilopus, which contains no less than seventy species, inhabiting a wide range
from the Malay Peninsula to Australia and Polynesia. The numerous species have
been arranged under twelve subgeneric groups, the first eight of which are dis-
tinguished by having the first flight-feather abruptly attenuated at the extremity,
the only exception being one species. The subgenus, Leucotreron, is characterised
by having no defined cap on the upper part of the head and by the tail being rather
long. As an example, we may mention P. occipitalis of the Philippine Islands, in
which the upper part of the head is grey, the cheeks and back of the head purple-red,
the back of the neck and the rest of the upper-parts bronze-green, with a grey band
at the tip of the tail; while the under surface of the body is mostly whitish and grey,
with a wide purplish band on the lower part of the breast. In the second group,
which contains the typical species of painted pigeons, the tail is moderately long,

FRUIT-PIGEONS. 367

the feathers on the breast are forked at the extremity, and there is a well-marked
cap on the top of the head. Among these the Eastern Australian painted pigeon
(P. swainsoni) has the crown rose-lilac, surrounded by a narrow ring of yellow ;
the upper-parts are mostly greenish yellow, the inner quills being tipped with deep
blue; the breast is dull green, each of the forked feathers shading into silvery grey
at the tip; and there is a lilac band between the breast and the orange abdomen.
The third group (Lamprotreron) is distinguished by a broad blue-black band
separating the breast from the abdomen. Only two species belong to this group,
viz. P. superbus and P. temmincki, the former being very common in New Guinea
and Australia. The other groups of this section of the genus, in which the first
primary is attenuated at the extremity, include eleven species, which, unlike
those previously mentioned, have the tail rather short, and are all inhabitants of
New Guinea or the islands immediately to the east and west. The remaining sub-
genera differ from those already mentioned in not having the first flight-feathers
narrowed, while none have the head, neck, and breast uniform rose-carmine. They
include twenty-nine species, many of which are exceedingly beautiful, but none
more so than P. eugeniw from the Solomon Islands. In both sexes of the latter
the head is pure white, and the rest of the upper-parts bronze-green, with a small
grey patch on the shoulder and spots on the wing-coverts of the same colour; the
throat and chest are dark purple-red, surrounded by a dull purple band; and the
breast is greyish green, shading into whitish on the abdomen.
Wart-Pigeons, Of the four other genera of the subfamily we may mention Chrys-
ee, cenas, which is distinguished by having the inner webs of the quills
yellow or orange-yellow, and contains three species from the Fiji Islands, one
being the splendid C. victor, the male of which has the general plumage bright
orange, with the head and throat olive-yellow, and the bill and feet green. The
female has the entire plumage rich green, the head and throat being yellowish
green, and the bill and feet black.

Another genus includes the wart-pigeons (Alectrenas) of Madagascar, in which
the plumage is mostly deep blue, and the feathers of the neck are deeply forked
at the extremity. Two of the species have the tail blue ; in one of these the crown
of the head is red, while in the other it is grey; in the third and fourth species the
tail is red, the former having the head of a light grey colour, while in the latter it
is deep slate-blue. Finally, the one species of Drepanoptila, from New Caledonia
and the Isle of Pines, is peculiar in having the outer flight-feathers divided at the
tip and the legs entirely feathered.

Thesg third subfamily includes the true fruit- pigeons (Car-
pophagine), the giants of the family, none of them being smaller
than a rock-dove, and many larger. They have the bill rather long and distensible
at the base, thus enabling them to swallow large fruits whole. Their plumage is
not much variegated, and in six out of the seven genera there are fourteen tail-
feathers, the seventh (Hemiphaga) having only twelve. The genus Globicera
contains seven species, differing from the rest by the swollen fleshy knob at the
base of the upper mandible. Passing over a peculiar form (Serresius) from the
Marquesas, in which the basal half of the bill is covered with a saddle-shaped
production of the skin of the forehead, we come to the typical genus Carpophaga,

Fruit-Pigeons.

308 PIGEONS AND SAND-GROUSE.

which may be divided into six subgenera, founded on the general colour of the
plumage and the shape of the flight-feathers. It will be sufficient to mention one
or two species in which the general colour is mostly metallic on the upper-parts,
the tail uniform in colour, and the flight-feathers normal in shape. In the nutmeg-
pigeon (C. wnea), common in the Indo-Burmese countries, Ceylon, and the Andamans,
the head, neck, and under-parts of the body are grey, the upper-parts bronze-green,

MADAGASCAR WART-PIGEONS (2 nat. size).

and the under tail-coverts deep chestnut. This bird keeps to the larger forest
trees, and lives on fruit, especially the wild nutmeg, which it swallows whole,
although only the mace is digested, the nutmeg being disgorged. Another closely
allied species, the Nicobar nutmeg-pigeon (C. insularis), of the islands from whence
it derives its name, differs in having the under tail-coverts mixed with dark green.
In the Nicobars it occurs singly, in pairs, or in small parties; and its deep low coo
may be heard all day resounding through the forest. It breeds in February and
March, and its nest has been found in a cocoanut-palm about twenty feet from the

IVPICAL PIGEONS. 369

ground, and contained one large white egg. The members of the genus Myristi-
civora may be distinguished from those previously mentioned by their white and
black plumage. The white nutmeg-pigeon (J/. bicolor) is a handsome species found
in the Philippine Islands, the Malay Archipelago, and the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Both sexes have the entire plumage of a pale creamy white, except the
flight-feathers, the tip of the tail, and some spots on the under tail-coverts, which

NUTMEG-PIGEON,

are black. This bird is not so generally distributed throughout the Nicobars as
the nutmeg-pigeon, and, though occasionally found some distance in the forest,
keeps in general to the mangrove-swamps; but on islands such as Treis and Track,
where there is little or no mangrove, it occurs everywhere. Lopholemus antarcticus,
found in Eastern Australia, is easily recognised by being the only crested species
of fruit-pigeon, and is the sole representative of its genus. The last genus,
Hemiphaga, contains three species belonging to New Zealand and adjacent islands,
and differs from the six genera already mentioned in having only twelve tail-
feathers.

Woop, Lonc-TAILED, AND PASSENGER-PIGEONS.
Family COLUMBIDZ.

This family may be distinguished from the green pigeons and their allies by
having the soles of the feet normal, that is, not very broad, and only the hind-toe
with the skin prominently expanded on the sides. It is split up into three groups,

VOL. IV.—24

370 PIGEONS AND SAND-GROOGSE:

the first being the Columbine, in which the tail is never longer than the wings;
this group containing the wood-pigeon, stock-dove, and rock-dove, from the last-
named of which the domestic breeds of pigeon are derived. Of the first genus,
Gymnophaps, only one species (G. albertist) peculiar to New Guinea is known,
which is distinguished from the allied genera by having the legs feathered for two-
thirds of their length, and a naked carmine space in front of and round the eyes.

Rock-Dove and We next come to the large and universally distributed genus,
Allies. Columba, containing about sixty species. All these birds resemble

the two following genera in never having the legs feathered for more than half

ROCK-DOVE (+ nat. size).

their length, while they differ in having the first flight-feather of the wing longer
than the sixth. Space only permits of mentioning a few more important members,
among which must be included the rock-dove or blue rock (C. livia), widely spread
over Europe, and extending as far as India in the east, where it meets the nearly
allied but grey-rumped species (C. intermedia); southwards it ranges to the north
and west coasts of Africa, where another closely related form (C. gymnocyclus) is
found, differing only in having the plumage dark bluish or blackish slate-colour,
and perhaps descended from domestic pigeons. In the original wild stock of the
blue rock, the plumage is grey, the rump white, and the neck and upper breast
metallic green and purple, while there are two narrower black bars across the
wing and a broader one across the end of the tail. It is found in a wild state
where caves and deep fissures exist, and is common along the northern coasts of

WOOD-PIGEON. 391

Scotland and Ireland, wherever suitable caves occur. The nest is placed on a
ledge or in a crevice of the rock in a cavern where little light penetrates.

Another British species is the stock-dove (C. wnas), often con-
fused with the rock-dove, which it resembles in size and general
colour, although distinguished by having the rump grey instead of white. This
pigeon is especially common in the southern and eastern counties of England, and
large flocks may be seen feeding in the fields, frequently in company with wood-

Stock-Dove.

WOOD-PIGEON AND STOCK-DOVE (4 nat. size).

pigeons. The places chosen by this bird for a nesting-site are varied. It frequently
breeds on open ledges in the face of a steep cliff (never in caves), and in rabbit-
burrows where the soil is light and sandy, or under the shelter of dense furze.
Numbers of nests are placed in trees, a favourite situation being among the dense
bunches of twigs surrounding the stems of old elms.

The third and largest British species is the wood - pigeon
(CU. palumbus), recognised by the broad white patch on each side of
the lower part of the neck as well by its variously tinted breast and the white

Wood-Pigeon.

372 FPAGEONS AND SAND-GROUSE.

band along the edge of the wing. Its range extends across Europe as far east as
Northern Persia, and it is also found in North-West Africa, the Azores, and Madeira.
The destruction of the larger birds of prey, as well as the extent of land devoted
to plantations and green crops, probably accounts for the vast increase in numbers
of this pigeon. That the countless swarms of these voracious birds in parts of the
country do an immense amount of damage, cannot be denied, but that much of
their food often consists of worthless seeds is a fact that may be easily ascertained
by examining the contents of their crops. Booth remarks that “shortly before
harvest wood-pigeons may often be seen flying in small parties to the fields of
wheat and barley ; after wheeling round for a time, the birds will disappear from .
view into the standing corn. An examination of the state of the ground on which
they were lost sight of would doubtless cause astonishment to those who imagined
that the birds were in pursuit of grain; on reaching the spot it would be discovered
that for a considerable space the crop was exceedingly scanty, completely choked,
in fact, by a mass of weed rank and strong, whose seeds, well-nigh ripe, had
proved the sole attraction. Immense flights of these birds arrive on the north-east
coast in October and November from the Continent, and about that time of year
large flocks, which have recently arrived exhausted by their long journey, may be
observed fluttering along the coast and about the fir plantations. In the London
parks it has now become one of the commonest birds, and is steadily increasing in
numbers, many pairs breeding each year.”

Some remarkable statements have been made concerning the
habits of the band-tailed pigeon (C. fasciata), which somewhat
resembles the common wood-pigeon in having a narrow white band or half-collar
on the nape, and is found in the Western States of North as well as in Central
America. In Oregon it sometimes breeds on the ground, and the normal number
of two eggs are laid; but in Arizona, where it appears to nest in nearly every
month of the year but a single egg is laid. Mr. O. C. Poling has ascertained that
this bird is often in the habit of carrying off its eggs when frightened from its
nest. He remarks that “in regard to their carrying the egg about, I have, in
addition to the cases noted, shot two other females having the egg imbedded in the
feathers of the belly, and further held by the legs while flying, but in such cases
they seem simply to alight on the limb of a spruce, and incubate there without any
nest. This accounts for the shooting of pigeons having a broken egg smeared over
the feathers, as I have done, when no nest was to be seen.” Some of the species of
Columba found in the islands of the Pacific are more brilliant in colouring, and
among these may be mentioned C. albigularis of New Guinea, in which the
plumage is blackish slate-colour, with the edges of the feathers metallic purple
changing into green, and the cheeks and throat white. The third genus,
Neseenas, with one species (V. meyer?) from Mauritius, is distinguished by having
the first flight-feather equal to the sixth. The plumage is pale pink, darker on
the mantle, and shading into brown on the back and wings, while the tail is
uniform cinnamon-colour. The last genus, Turturena, contains five of the smallest
species of this group, not exceeding the common dove in size, with the hind-neck
brilliantly ornamented with metallic colours. They inhabit Africa, and differ from
other Columbine in having the sexes often very dissimilar in plumage.

Other Species.

LONG-TAILED PIGEONS. 373

Long-Tailed The second subfamily, Mucropygiine, or long-tailed pigeons, of
Pigeons. South-Eastern Asia and the islands of the Pacific, may be distin-
guished by having the tail longer than the wings, in which respect they -esemble
the migratory pigeon, the type of the third section of this family, while they
differ from it in having the feathers of the tail broad and round at the tip. Four
genera, including thirty species, are recognised, although little has been recorded of
their habits. Of the first genus, Twracena, the two species have the bill fairly
strong, and the tail moderately rounded, the outer feathers being much more than
half the length of the middle pair. The Celebean species (7. menadensis) has the
plumage slate-black, with the face and throat white, while in the one from Timor
(7. modesta) it is uniform slate-colour; both being ornamented with shades of
metallic green, lilac, and blue.

The great majority of the long-tailed pigeons belong to the
genus Macropygia, commonly known as cuckoo-pigeons. All have
the tail much graduated and wedge-shaped, the outer feathers being less than half
the length of the middle pair, and the general colour of their plumage is rufous,
chestnut, or cinnamon. In the Indian cuckoo-pigeon (J. tusalia) the male has
the plumage of the forehead, chin, and throat vinaceous buff, the top of the head
and rest of the upper-parts shining metallic green with purple and bronze reflec-
tions, the latter being also irregularly barred with black and purple chestnut; the
under-parts are vinous grey shading into buff on the abdomen, and glossed on the
chest with golden-green and bronze; the quills are brown, and the middle pair of
tail-feathers barred with black and vinous chestnut, while the outer pairs are
mostly grey. The female is not so brightly coloured, and has most of the under-
parts barred with brownish black. This bird is of a shy disposition, keeping to
thick forest, and associating in small flocks which feed chiefly on trees and seldom
descend to the ground. In Nipal the two white or sometimes creamy eggs are
laid in May and June, and the nest, which is the usual loose platform of sticks, is
placed on some horizontal branch, at no great height from the ground.

In the other two genera the bill is strong and thick, and the tail
wedge-shaped, as in Macropygia. The first of these, Retnwardtenas.

distinguished by having no crest, contains three species, ranging from Celebes to
the Duke of York Island. In Reinwardt’s long-tailed pigeon (R. retnwardti) both
sexes have the head, neck, and mantle pale lavender, the back, wings, and middle
‘tail-feathers chestnut; and the front of the neck and breast white shading into
lavender on the abdomen. The last genus, Coryphanas, contains one crested
species (C. crassirostris) from the Solomon Group. The whole plumage of this
bird is slate-colour, darker on the upper surface, and the head is dusky brown, the
feathers on the back of the head being lengthened into a greyish brown crest.

Cuckoo-Pigeons.

Allied Genera.

Passenger- The last group of the subfamily, like the other long-tailed pigeons,
Pigeon. has the tail longer than the wings, but it is also narrower, and the

feathers are pointed at the extremity. Only one species, the passenger-pigeon
(Ectopistes migratorius); of North America is known. In the male the head and
upper-parts of the body are bluish grey, spotted with black on the wings; the
quills brownish black with grey edges, the chin whitish grey, and the breast
cinnamon-rufous shading into pale vinous on the rest of the under-parts, and

374 PIGEONS AND SAND-GROUSE.

white on the under tail-coverts. The back and sides of the neck glitter with
golden and violet metallic colours. In the female the upper-parts of the breast
are brownish, shading into white on the abdomen and rest of the under-parts.
There can be little doubt that the vast numbers of this pigeon have greatly
diminished during recent years, and though at present by no means on the verge of
extinction, it seems certain that unless laws be made for its protection its
extermination is only a matter of time. Mr. Brewster writes that in Michigan
“we found that large flocks of pigeons had passed there late in April, while there
were reports of similar flights from almost every country in the southern part of

PASSENGER-PIGEON,

the State. Although most of the birds had passed on before our arrival, the
professional pigeon-netters, confident that they would finally breed somewhere in
the southern peninsula, were busily engaged getting their nets and other apparatus
in order for an extensive campaign against the birds. Our principal informant
said that the last nesting of any importance in Michigan was in 1881, a few miles
west of the Grand Traverse. It was only of moderate size, perhaps eight miles
long. Subsequently, in 1886, Mr. Stevens found about fifty dozen pairs nesting in
aswamp near Lake City. He does not doubt that similar small colonies occur
every year, besides scattered pairs. In fact he sees a few pigeons about Cadillae
every summer, and in the early autumn young birds, barely able to fly, are often

MOURNING-DOVES. 375

met with singly or in small parties in the woods. Such stragglers attract little
attention, and no one attempts to net them, although many are shot. The largest
nesting he ever visited was in 1876 or 1877. It began near Petosky, and extended
north-east past Crooked Lake for twenty-eight miles, averaging three or four miles
wide. The birds arrived in two separate bodies, one directly from the south by
land, the other following the east coast of Wisconsin, and crossing at Maniton
Island. He saw the latter body come in from the lake at about three o’clock in the
afternoon. It was a compact mass of pigeons, at least five miles long by one mile
wide. The birds began building when the snow was twelve inches deep in the
woods, although the fields were bare at the time. So rapidly did the colony
extend its boundaries, that it soon passed literally over and around the place where
he was netting, although, when he began, this point was several miles from
the nearest nest. Nestings usually start in deciduous woods, but during their
progress the pigeons do not skip any kind of trees they encounter. The Petosky
nesting extended eight miles through hardwood timber, then crossed a river bottom
wooded with arborvite, and thence stretched through white pine woods about
twenty miles. For the entire distance of twenty-eight miles every tree of any
size had more or less nests, and many trees were filled with them. None were
lower than about fifteen feet above the ground. Pigeons are very noisy when
building. They make a sound resembling the croaking of wood-frogs. Their
combined clamour can be heard four or five miles away when the atmospheric
conditions are favourable. Two eggs are usually laid, but many nests contain
only one. Both birds incubate, the female between 2 o’clock P.M. and 9 or 10
o’clock the next morning; the males from 9 or 10 o'clock A.M. to 2 o'clock P.M.
The males feed twice each day, namely, from daylight to about 8 o'clock A.m., and
again late in the afternoon. The females feed only during the forenoon.”

THE GROUND-PIGEONS.
Family PERISTERIDZ.

In contradistinction to the preceding groups, which may be collectively
spoken of as tree-pigeons, we now come to a family whose members live much on
the ground. This family of ground-pigeons, which includes almost all the remaining
species, is distinguished from the tree-pigeons by having the legs equal to or longer
than the middle toe. Seven subfamilies are recognised, in the first six of which
the feathers of the neck are never hackled.

The group of mourning-doves (Zenaidine), distinguished by
having a blackish, more or less metallic, spot below the ear-coverts,
includes thirteen rather small American species, placed in four genera; the first
(Zenaidura) resembling the two following ones in having the scapulars and upper
wing-coverts spotted with black. It further agrees with the next genus (Zenaida)
in the tail being composed of fourteen feathers, and the bill nearly straight, but
differs in having the tail longer and generally wedge-shaped. All the three
species are North and Central American, the best known being the mourning-
dove (Z. carolinensis) of the United States, Central America, and the West

Mourning-Doves.

376 PIGEONS AND. SAND-GROUSE.

Indies. In the male of this species the crown and upper-parts of the body
are bluish, mostly washed with light olive-brown; the rest of the head and
under-parts being cinnamon-buff, tinged with purple on the breast. The female
is smaller, and has the under-parts brown like the back, but paler. Captain
Bendire states that this bird is frequently found breeding in gardens and
shrubberies near dwelling-houses, feeding in the barnyard among domestic fowls.
Never occurring in large flocks like the passenger-pigeon, it is’ usually found in
small parties of from six to a dozen or more, and in autuinn, previous to its
migration, may be met with in flocks of fifty or sixty. It is fond of alighting in
roads, where it may often be seen searching for suitable food or gravel, or taking
a dust-bath, of which it is very fond. In the more arid districts of the West, such
as South Arizona, where water is scarce, this dove, like the sand-grouse, visits
regular watering-places in the morning and evening, to which it may be seen
coming in small parties from all directions. The nesting-sites chosen are variable,
and in some localities, such as the Carolinas, these doves nest chiefly on the ground,
while they are said occasionally to lay their eggs in other birds’ nests. The old
birds are attentive to their young, even long after they have left the nest, and the
female has been observed covering fully-fledged young. As many as four eggs
have been found in one nest, but whether these were all laid by one bird is
uncertain. ‘The seven species of the genus Zenaida, inhabiting the West Indies
and Central and South America, differ in having the tail only moderately long and
rounded. The Zenaida dove (Z. amabilis) of the West Indies has the upper-parts
brown, with some black spots on the wings, the chin white, the cheeks and throat
rufescent, two steel-blue spots above and below the ear-coverts, and the top of the
head, breast, and under-parts vinous. The quills are black, edged with white, and
there is a conspicuous white band at the end of the secondaries. Rather solitary
in its habits, it is never met with in flocks, nor does it breed in communities. Its
food consists of small seeds, the principal part of its time being spent on the
ground; and when flushed it flies off in a straight line much like a quail. The
nesting-habits vary much in different localities. In the Bahamas they have been
found nesting in the fork of a fallen tree about three feet from the ground, while
other nests were in holes in rocks. Among the islands at Indian Key, the nest is
placed in a small hole scooped in the sand, and is composed of dry leaves and
twigs, with a matted inner lining of blades of dry grass, the whole structure being
more compact than that of other pigeons. Writing of another,South American
species (Z. wwriculata), distinguished by having no white tips to the secondary
flight-feathers, Mr. Hudson says, that it “is the commonest species of the pigeon-
tribe in the Argentine country, and is known to every one as the ‘ Torcasa,
probably a corruption of Tortola, or turtle-dove. In autumn. they often congregate
in very large flocks, and are sometimes observed migrating, flock succeeding flock,
all travelling in a northerly direction, and continuing to pass for several consecutive
days. But these autumnal migrations are not witnessed every year, nor have I
seen any return-migration in spring; while the usual autumn and winter move-
ments are very irregular, and apparently depend altogether on the supply of food.
When the giant thistle has covered the plains in summer, incredible numbers of
torcases appear later in the season, and usually spend the winter on the plains,

TURTLE-DOVES. 377

congregating every evening in countless myriads wherever there are trees enough
to form a suitable roosting-place. On bright warm days in August, the sweet and
sorrowful sob-like song of this dove, composed of five notes, is heard from every
grove—a pleasing, soft, murmuring sound, which causes one to experience, by
anticipation the languid summer feeling in his veins.”

Galapagos A peculiar genus, Vesopelia, is represented by a single species,
Pigeon. the Galapagos pigeon (NV. galapagoensis), restricted to the islands

from which it takes its name. This bird has the bill long and bent down-
wards, and the tail rather short, rounded, and composed of twelve feathers.
White-Winged Of the white-winged doves (Melopelia) two species are known,

Doves. = one from the south-western United States, Central America, and the
West Indies, and the other from Peru and Chili. They are distinguished from the
mourning-doves by the absence of black spots on the wings, while there is a white
patch on the upper wing-coverts. The northern species (J/. leucoptera) has a note
bearing a close resemblance to the first efforts of a young cock attempting to crow,
and this call is frequently uttered and in various keys. In Arizona, towards the
end of summer, this bird, which is by no means shy, collects in small parties.

The turtle-doves (Turturine), of which a species is figured in
the cut on p. 878, form the second subfamily of the ground-pigeons, and
include twenty-eight Old World species belonging to one genus (Turtur), which
may be divided into five subgenera. They differ from the mourning-doves in
having no black spot below the ear-coverts, and the neck ornamented with a more
or less distinct dark collar, or with dark scale-like patches on the sides. In the
first three subgenera (Turtur, Homopelia, and Streptopelia) the feathers of the
neck are normal, in the fourth (Spilopelia) those of the hind-neck, and in the fifth
(Stigmatopelia) those of the fore-neck, are forked at the extremity. The first two
may also be recognised by having two scale-like patches of dark feathers on the
sides of the neck, while Streptopelia has a complete black collar on the hind-neck.
The five typical species of Twrtur have the wing-coverts mottled, with the centres
of the feathers darker than the edges. Of these, the turtle-dove (7. communis) is
widely distributed over Europe, extending as far east as Yarkand, and ranging
southward in winter to Africa, where it reaches at least as far south as Shoa. The

Turtle-Doves.

crown and hind-neck are bluish grey, with a black patch of white-margined
feathers on each side of the neck, the back is pale brown, the inner wing-coverts
cinnamon-brown with dark middles, and the outer grey washed below with ashy,
the chin nearly white, and the throat and breast vinous shading into white on the
belly; the quills and the two middle tail-feathers being brown, while the outer
pairs are greyish black broadly tipped with white. The male is rather larger than
the female, and has the plumage brighter and purer in colour. The turtle-doye,
which is a summer visitor to the British Isles, where it is one of the latest migrants,
not arriving till the end of April or the beginning of May and departing in
September, may be distinguished from the three pigeons found in those islands by
its smaller size. Shortly after its arrival it commences to build its nest, which is
loosely constructed of slender twigs and placed in a thick bush, tree, or dense
hedge at no great height from the ground. Two small creamy white eggs are laid,
and both parents take part in the incubation, which lasts about a fortnight, two

378 PIGEONS AND SAND-GROUSE.

broods being sometimes reared in the season. The turtle-dove is chiefly met with
in woods, and is partial to thick coverts and fir plantations, whence its low pro-
longed coo may be constantly heard, though the bird itself is rarely to be seen,
preferring the seclusion afforded by the thick foliage to the outer branches of the
trees. Its flight is always extremely rapid, and when amongst trees it can turn
and twist with extraordinary ease and swiftness. It sometimes flies great distances
in search of food and water, and may be often seen in cultivated fields searching

DOMESTIC TURTLE-DOVE, AND AFRICAN GROUND-DOVE (4 nat. size).

for grain and seeds, although seldom in such large flocks as other pigeons. In
Britain it is a shy bird, at the slightest sign of danger quickly seeking shelter in
the nearest covert. All the five members of the second subgenus (Homopelic),
which have the upper wing-coverts uniform in colour, inhabit Madagascar and the
adjacent islands. The third subgenus (Streptopelia), distinguished by having ¢
black collar round the hind-neck, includes thirteen species; but it is uncertain from
which of these the domestic turtle-dove (7. risorius) has been derived. As an
example of this group may be mentioned the Tranquebar dove (7. tranquebaricus),

VARIOOUS DOVES. . 379

from Peninsular India, in which the plumage is vinous red; the lower back, rump,
and flanks grey; the head, under wing-coverts, lower abdomen, and under tail-coverts
similarly coloured but paler; the outer wing-coverts darker, the chin whitish,
the vinous red upper-parts separated from the grey of the head by a black collar
on the hind-neck ; and the quills blackish with pale edges. A nearly allied form (7.
humilis) from the Indo-Chinese countries, is distinguished by having the under
wing-coverts much darker and of a grey colour. In Tenasserim it is found in
larger or smaller flocks, very wild and difficult to approach, and keeping to the thin
tree and bamboo-jungle. These flocks were met with in the vicinity of cultivated
land, feeding on the ground, and when disturbed rose together and settled on the
same tree, sometimes a leafless one, sometimes one with plenty of foliage.

The three species of turtle-dove constituting the fourth group (Spilopelia) are
distinguished by having the feathers of the hind-neck forked at the extremity, and
black ornamented with two white spots at the tip. The Burmo-Malayan species
(T. tigrinus), recognised by the dark brown shaft-line on the wing-coverts, is the
common dove of Tenasserim, and is met with in gardens, fields, and grassy land ;
in fact, wherever the country is open, but not in the forest or on the higher hills.
It is sometimes seen singly, or in pairs, at other times in small flocks or in hundreds.
The last group (Stigmatopelia) includes two species which may be recognised by
having the feathers of the fore-neck forked at the extremity, and black with two
rufous spots at the end. They have a wide range, the Senegal turtle-dove (7.
senegalensis) being found all over Africa, while the brown turtle-dove (7. cam-
bayensis) ranges from Asia Minor to Central India. The former is characterised by
the plumage of the upper-parts being more or less reddish, and the rump bluish grey.
The subfamily Geopeliinw contains three genera, with a few small species from
both the Old and New Worlds, and is characterised by the short rounded wings,
a rather long tail of fourteen feathers, and no metallic tint on the sides of the neck
or elsewhere. The Old World forms belong to the typical Geopelia, ranging from
Burma to Australia, and have the first quill-feather pointed at the extremity. The
American genus, Scardafella, includes two doves about the size of sparrows, with
the first flight-feathers normal, and the tail of twelve feathers; the Inca dove (8.
inca) from the South-Western, North, and Central America being a well-known
example. But a single species (Gymmnopelia erythrothorax) is included in the last
genus, distinguished by the large naked patch surrounding the eye.

The six American genera of the subfamily Peristerinw are
characterised by their small size and the general uniform coloration of
the plumage; the wings being, as a rule, ornamented with metallic spots, and rather
short and rounded, while the primaries are not much longer than the secondaries.
In five genera the tail is rather longer than half the length of the wing; while
the two last may be distinguished by having the first primary pointed at its
extremity. The picui dove (Columbula picui), the only representative of the first
genus, is peculiar in having a steel-blue band across the wing, and by the middle
and outer pairs of tail-feathers being shorter than the intermediate ones. Found
only in South America, it is the smallest dove of Argentina where it is a resident,
frequenting the neighbourhood of houses; and its song, consisting of a succession
of long, rather loud and somewhat monotonous notes, may often be heard in

American Genera.

380 PIGEONS AND SAND?GROUCSE.

summer or even on warm days in winter. Six small species, ranging from the
Southern United States to South America, represent the second genus (Chamc-
pelia), which has a tail shorter than the length of the wing and rounded at the
extremity, the middle feathers being longer than the outer ones. The remaining
genera may be passed over without notice.

The South African cinnamon-dove (Haplopelia larvata) may be
taken as a well-known representative of another subfamily of ground-
doves (Geotrygonine), which contains more than seventy species of somewhat
partridge-like birds with no well-defined metallic spots or bands, although a violet
patch may be present near the bend of the wing. The metatarsus is stout and
longer than the third toe, and in the short and rounded wings the primaries exceed _
the secondaries in length. Of the nine recognised genera, the one above mentioned,
which has six African species, is characterised by the primary feathers being broad.
and not tapering to a point, while in the remaining eight they are narrow and
more or less pointed. The cinnamon-dove is distinguished from its allies by having
the forehead white, the top of the head, hind-neck, chest, and upper-breast metallic
coppery purple, the back and wings olive-brown, and the abdomen and under tail-
coverts pale cinnamon. The Zamoen Duif, as the colonists call this bird, is common
in the dense bush along the coast of Natal, where its brown colouring renders it
difficult to detect as it sits motionless among the dense creepers. It never appears
in the open, and is generally to be seen on the ground beneath the trees, silently
and busily searching for food. Of the remaining genera with narrow primaries,
two have the outermost pointed at the extremity; and of these, Leptoptila is dis-
tinguished by having the tail equal to more than half the length of the wing. The
species range from Texas through Mexico and Central America to Peru and
Argentina, and may be divided into a long-tailed and a short-tailed group. ‘Two
handsome species form the genus Osculatea, in which the length of the tail is less
than half that of the wing. In the six following genera, the first primary is not
pointed at the tip; the first five agreeing with one another in having the front of
the metatarsus covered with transverse scales; while, in the three genera to be
next mentioned, the tail is composed of less than twenty feathers. The Central
and South American genus, Geotrygon, is also characterised by its rather short tail
of twelve feathers. Another genus, Phlogenas, differs from the above in having
fourteen feathers in the tail. More than twenty species are known, some of which

Blood Breasted are remarkably handsome birds, but none more so than the blood-

Dove. breasted dove (P. luzonica), from the Philippines, represented in the
woodcut on p. 381. The forehead and crown are pale grey ; the top of the head, upper-
parts, and sides of the breast dark grey, the feathers being edged with metallic
purple and green ; the cheeks, throat, and breast white shading into buff below ; and
there is a large patch of blood-red on the middle of the breast. The quills are
reddish brown, there are six alternate bands of grey and chestnut across each wing
and a black band near the tip of the outer tail-feathers, The two remaining
genera, with the tail composed of less than twenty feathers, are distinguished by

Cinnamon Dove.

the longer tail.
Wonga-Wonga The Australian wonga-wonga (Leucosarcia prcata) is the only
Dove, representative of a genus, distinguished from the seventh (Hutrygon)

DOVES. 381

by the metatarsus being very little longer than the middle toe. This dove, remark-
able for its size, inhabits the brush-country of Eastern Australia, where it spends the
greater part of its time on the ground, feeding on seeds and fallen fruits. The noise
made by its wings when rising is said to resemble that of a pheasant, and its flight
is never long sustained. In the two species of Hutrygon from New Guinea, the
metatarsus is twice as long as the third toe; while the genus Otidiphaps, including

BLOOD-BKEASTED DOVES (3 nat. size),

three large black species, with chestnut back and wings, from New Guinea and
Fergusson Island, is peculiar in having twenty feathers in the tail.

Blue-Bearded The last genus, characterised by having the front of the legs

Cuban Dove. covered by six-sided scales, contains only the blue-bearded Cuban dove
(Starnenas cyanocephala), figured on p 382. The general colour of this bird is
olive-brown above, and dull rusty beneath; the top of the head being blue margined
with black, and a broad white stripe running below the eye, while the feathers of
the throat and breast are black, tipped with blue and narrowly margined with white.

382 PIGEONS AND SAND-GROUSE.

As a well-known representative of the fourth subfamily
Phabine) of this assemblage, may be mentioned the Cape dove
fo)

fT pensis), which is the sole member of its genus. The subfamily includes
na cape ; g

a dozen genera, and about double that number of species, all of which are confined

to the Old World; their essential characters being their relatively large size, and

the presence of blue or green spots or patches on the wings. In the first four

genera there are two dark bands across the rump. The Cape dove, which may be

recognised by its long wedge-shaped tail, with the middle feathers more than twice

: ] 1 Q : ro al 9¢

as long as the outer pair, ranges all over Tropical and Southern Africa, as well as

Madagascar and Arabia. It occurs in pairs, and is chiefly found on the ground; .

Cape Dove.

BLUE-BEARDED CUBAN DOVES (4 nat. size),

when disturbed, seeking shelter in low trees and bushes, but rarely in larger trees.
The nest is placed in a low bush, and the two white eggs have a rosy tint, caused
by the thinness and semi-transparency of the shell. The next three genera have
the tail moderately long and more or less rounded; and while Tympanistria has
the first primary pointed, in Chalcopelia and Chalcophaps this feather is normal
in shape. The white-breasted wood-dove, the only representative of the genus
Tympanistria, inhabits the whole of South Africa as well as Madagascar, the
Comoro Islands, and Fernando Po.

African Ground- The African ground-dove (Chalopelia afra), the solitary repre-
Dove: sentative of its genus, in addition to the characters given, may be

recognised by the boldly marked patches of metallic steel-blue or golden-green
adorning the wings. Inhabiting the whole of Africa south of about 17° north

DOVES. 383

latitude, it is met with in Abyssinia among bushes, and thick underwood, and
in the jungles along the banks of water-courses. It is figured on p. 378.

Bronze-Winged The six bronze-winged doves (Chalcoptera), distinguished by
Doves. having the upper wing-coverts metallic golden-green, are mostly in-

habitants of the Indo-Malayan and Australian regions; the Indian species (C.
indica), ranging from India to Western New Guinea, having the top of the head
and hind-neck dark grey, the white forehead and eyebrow-stripes of the male less
distinct in the female, and the middle of the back and shoulder-feathers golden-
green like the wing-coverts. This dove is not uncommon in the well-wooded
portions of Tenasserim, where it is found singly or in pairs in thick forest or
very shady gardens. Omitting mention of several genera, we come to two
Australian species, in which the beak is feeble, and the tail has sixteen feathers.
Australian The common bronze-winged dove (Phaps chalcoptera) is generally
Ground Doves. distributed all over Australia, and differs from its ally, P. elegans, in
having the throat white instead of chestnut, and the breast vinous; while in the
latter this part is grey. It isa plump, heavy bird, weighing fully a pound when
in good condition. Its amazing powers of flight enable it to cross a great expanse of
country in an incredibly short space of time, and just before sunset it may be seen
singly, or in pairs, coming swiftly over the plains, or down the gullies to its drink-
ing-places. It feeds almost entirely on the ground, picking up various leguminous
seeds ; and numbers of old and young are killed in the stubble-fields after the breed-
ing-season, which lasts from August to December.

Another genus (Histriophaps), characterised by the feeble bill
and the tail of fourteen feathers, is represented by one peculiarly
coloured species, the harlequin-dove (H. histrionica), of North-Western Australia.
The forehead, a stripe round the ear-coverts, and the gorget are snow-white; the
remainder of the head, throat, and ear-coverts being jet black, while the upper-
parts of the body and middle tail-feathers are cinnamon-brown, with a patch of
metallic purple on the innermost secondaries ; the under-parts being bluish grey, and
the outer tail-feathers blackish, shading into grey at the base, and tipped with
white. This species breeds in February, depositing two eggs under any low bush
in the middle of the open plains. Towards the beginning of April it collects in
large flocks, and lives on the seeds of the rice-grass, which the natives collect for
food. During the short period harvest lasts the flavour of this dove is delicious,
but at other times it is indifferent. It flies to water at sunset, when, like the
bronze-wing, it only wets the bill; and it seems astonishing that so small a quantity
of water should suffice to quench its thirst in the burning deserts it inhabits.

If we omit the white-quilled rock-dove, (Petrophassa albipen-
nis), having the general plumage almost uniform dark brown,
and the bases of the primaries white, and inhabiting the sterile districts of North-
Western Australia, we come to two species forming the genus Geophaps, which, in
addition to the characters already mentioned, has the bill rather stout. The
pencilled bronze-winged dove (G. script) has the top of the head, upper-parts, and
chest light brown; the tips of the upper wing-coverts being paler, and the inner
ones ornamented with patches of metallic greenish purple, the cheeks, ear-coverts,
and throat white bordered by a black band in front of the eye, a second black band

Harlequin-Dove.

Pencilled Dove.

384 PIGEONS AND SAND-GROUSE.

being on the cheek, while a third passes above the eye, the rest of the under-parts
being grey, shading into fawn colour, the quills brown edged with pale rufous, and
the tail reddish brown, with the outer feathers tipped with black. This bird inhabits
the plains, being most abundant in the neighbourhood of water, and is sometimes
observed in pairs, but more frequently in small flocks of from four to six. When
approached, instead of taking flight, it runs off rapidly in an opposite direction,
and crouching down, either on the bare plains or among the scanty herbage, remains
till all but trodden on. When it rises, its flight is rapid, and accompanied by a
loud whirring noise of the wings. No nest 1s made, the two eggs being deposited
on the bare ground, and the young are able to run when no larger than quails.

CRESTED AND COMMON BRONZE-WINGED DOVES (} nat. size).

Plumed The last two genera of the bronze-winged doves are distinguished
Bronze-Wing. }y having the head crested, while they differ from one another in the
shape of the tail-feathers, which are short and nearly even in Lophophaps, and in
Ocyphaps long, the middle pair being longer than the outer. Of the former, three
Australian species are known, all with the general colour cmnamon, the innermost
secondaries with metallic bronze-purple spots, the cheeks and throat white, the throat
having a black band down the middle, commencing on the chin and joining the gor-
get, which is similarly coloured, the breast having a grey band across it. Writing
of the plumed bronze-winged dove (L. plumifera), of North-Western Australia, Sturt
says it was generally seen perched on some rock, basking with pleasure in the heat
of the sun, and was exceedingly wild, taking flight at the slightest noise.

PIGEONS. 385

Crested The crested bronze- winged dove (Ocyphaps lophotes), repre-
Bronze-Wing. sented on the lett side of the figure on p. 384, is the only
representative of the last genus, and is a native of the interior of North
and East Australia. Its crest is black, the head and under- parts grey, the
sides of the neck and breast pinkish salmon-colour, the back and rump
olive-grey, and the upper tail-coverts greyish brown, edged with white. The
smaller wing-coverts are greyish buff, banded with black, the greater coverts and
secondaries edged with white, and mostly ornamented with metallic green and
purple. The primaries are greyish black, the middle tail-feathers brown, and the
outer pairs brownish black, glossed on their outer webs with green, blue, and

NICOBAR PIGEONS (4 nat. size).

purple. Gould says this dove “frequently assembles in very large flocks; and
when it visits the lagoons or river-sides for water, during the dry seasons, generally
selects a single tree, or even a particular branch, on which to congregate before
descending simultaneously to drink. Its flight is more rapid than that of any
member of the group to which it belongs; and impetus being acquired by a few
quick flaps of the wings, it goes skimming off apparently without any further
movement of the pinions. Upon alighting on a branch, it elevates its tail and
throws back its head, so as to bring them nearly together, at the same time erecting
its crest, and showing itself off to advantage.”

Ricoto The beautiful Nicobar pigeon (Calenas nicobaricd) has a wide
range, inhabiting not only the islands from which it takes its name,
but extending through the Mergui and Malay Archipelagos to the Solomon Islands.
Together with a smaller species of an indigo-blue colour from the Pelew Islands,

VOL. IV.—25

386 PIGEONS AND SAND-GROUSE.

the Nicobar pigeon represents not only its genus, but likewise a special subfamily
(Calenadine), distinguished from the preceding groups by the elongated and
narrow feathers of the neck, which resemble the hackles of a game-cock. The
general colour of the plumage is metallic green with copper-coloured reflections,
the under-parts are less brightly coloured, the head, neck, and upper breast being
nearly black, while the quills are also much the same colour, and the short tail
and its coverts are pure white. The bill and the knob at the base are black, and
the legs and feet dark purple. In one of the Nicobar Islands, Davison says
that the birds swarm by thousands, and in the early morning may be seen flying
from the island in flocks out to sea, doubtless to other islands of the group to
feed. When well up in the air, the flight is swift and powerful, and somewhat
like that of sand-grouse. Having wandered some distance away from the rest of
his party, and reached a part of the jungle where the birds had not been disturbed,
he was surrounded by a flock of at least thirty old and young pigeons. Their gait
was pigeon-like, and while digging among the dead leaves in search of food with
their bills they were very silent, their only note being a hoarse croak. He
always met with them
on the ground, and,
when disturbed, they
invariably perched on
the thicker branches
along which they were
often seen to walk.
The Nicobar pigeon
builds a nest of sticks,
in which the single

egg is laid.

CROWNED PIGEONS.
Family GOURID.

The members of
this family are the
largest existing repre-
sentatives of the order,
and are characterised
by the erect fan-shaped
crest which adorns the
head as well as by their
large size, while they
are further distin-
guished by having the
metatarsus covered all
over with small six-

ALBERTS’ CROWNED PIGEON. (From D’Albertis’ Vew Guinea.) sided scales. Exclus-

LOOL-BILLED PIGEON: 387

ively Australasian in their distribution, all the six known species inhabiting the
Papuan Islands have the general colour bluish slate; but the Victorian crowned
pigeon (Goura victorie) differs from its allies in having the tips of the erest-
feathers spatulate or club-shaped. Very little has been recorded concerning the
habits of these splendid birds, but they appear to spend much of their time on
the ground in search of food, and being remarkably stupid may be easily
approached within gunshot. The species here figured (G. albertisi) was discovered
by the explorer from whom it takes its name.

THE TooTH-BILLED PIGEON.

Family DIDUNCULID.

Occupying an entirely isolated position among the existing members of the
order, the tooth-billed pigeon (Didunculus strigirostris) is perhaps the most

TOOTH-BILLED PIGEON (} nat. size).

interesting representative of the whole group, on account of its kinship to the
dodo. An inhabitant of the Samoan Islands, this pigeon possesses a remarkably
heavy powerful bill and short strong legs. The head, mantle, and chest are
metallic blackish green, while the rest of the upper-parts are chestnut, and the
under-parts brownish black. The bill is orange and the legs and feet reddish
ochre. The following account of its habits is taken from one given by Mr.

388 PIGHONS AND SAND-GROUSE.

Whitmee, from which it appears that the bird now feeds mainly on trees, whereas
it formerly procured its food on the ground:—“I did not attribute much
importance to that fact, says the observer, because the bird. being wary, I thought
its destruction by wild cats to be chiefly in the night when roosting, or when on
the nest during the process of incubation, while rats would also destroy the egos
or young in the nest. Hence, I did not see how a change in the place of feeding
could alone account for the increase of the bird. I therefore made particular
inquiries from natives as to its roosting; and from the information thus procured
I believe the Didunculi almost invariably now roost upon the high branches of
trees instead of upon low stumps as formerly.” The nest is so rarely found, that

few opportunities occur of learning where it is built; but it appears that it is

generally situated in the fork of a tree, and that the egos are white; although
formerly the bird nested on the ground. Verging some years ago on extinetion,
from the assumption of arboreal habits, the Samoan tooth-billed pigeon is now
increasing rapidly in numbers.

Dopo AND SOLITAIRE.
Family DIDIDZ.

The dodo and its near ally the solitaire are recently exterminated
members of the order, characterised by their very large size and
massive build, accompanied by a total incapacity for flight. This group was
entirely confined to the islands of Mauritius, Reunion, and Rodriguez. A native
of Mauritius, and the sole repre-
sentative of its genus, the dodo
(Didus ineptus), in size was
somewhat larger than a swan,
with rudimental wings, and a
tail composed of short curly
feathers. The beak was very
large and hooked, the body
remarkably heavy, and the legs
and feet short and stout. Large,
clumsy, and defenceless, the dodo
was a bird marked out for early
destruction; and soon after its
discovery it fell a prey to sailors,
and the animals introduced by

rome aeRO) them into its island-home. <A

few scattered relics of stuffed

specimens, together with bones dug up from the peat of Mauritius, are all that

are left of this bird; but fortunately a good idea of its appearance is given in

several contemporary pictures. It was discovered by Admiral Van Neck in 1598,

and was still abundant in 1601, and it was known to be living eighty years later,

although by 1691 it appears to have been exterminated. An allied bird inhabited
Reunion, but its affinities will probably remain unknown.

Dodo.

SAND-GROUSE. 389

The gigantic flightless pigeon of Rodriguez, known as the
sohtaire (Pezophaps solitaria), survived till a later date than the
dodo, having probably lingered on in the more remote parts of the island till 1761.
It was much longer in the leg than the dodo, and had a proportionately longer

Solitaire.

neck, and the males, which were far superior in size to the females, had a peculiar
ball-like excrescence on the wings. Leguat,*who visited Rodriguez in 1691, found
the solitaires abundant, and has given us a good account of their habits, and a
truthful, if somewhat pre-Raphaelite portrait; while of late years numerous
bones of the solitaire have been brought to Europe, so that we have now a fair
idea of its organisation and affinities.

THE SAND-GROUSE.
Family PTEROCLID.

The sand-grouse form a small group intermediate in their affinities between
the pigeons and game-birds; resembling the former in the most important
particulars of their skeleton, while their digestive organs are very similar to those
of the latter Among their other columbine characters may be specially
noted the great triangular deltoid crest of the humerus or upper bone of
the wing, the peculiar shape of which is so characteristic of the pigeon tribe; this
deltoid crest being the projecting process on the right side of the upper-part of
the specimens figured on p. 391. To this process is attached the great pectoral
muscle which renders these birds capable of sustained and powerful flight. In the
game-birds this process (as shown in the same cut) is very differently formed, the
edge being rounded and curved inwards instead of nearly flat and triangular.
In the sand-grouse the body is rather stout and compact, the neck short and the
head small. The bill is short and shaped like that of the game-birds, although not
so strong; there is never any naked space round the eyes; the wings are long and
pointed, and the legs and toes are remarkably short, rendering it impossible for
these birds to perch on trees. The general tone of the plumage is suggestive of
the sandy arid regions these birds frequent, being a subtle mixture of subdued
colours, beautiful in their arrangement and pattern, but well suited to afford
protection by their perfect harmony with the surroundings. The majority of this
group inhabit Africa and South-Western and Central Asia, but Pallas’s sand-
grouse ranges in summer to the north of Lake Baikal, and westwards to Pekin,
and the black-bellied sand-grouse extends to the Canary Islands and South-West
Europe, while Madagascar contains a species (Pteroclurus personata) peculiar to
that island, and the Pyrenean pin-tailed sand-grouse (P. pyrenaicus), a western
form of the Asiatie species (P. alchata), is met with in South-Western Europe and
North Africa. The flight of these birds is swift and powerful, and on the wing
they resemble the plover tribe. All are more or less migratory, and some travel
immense distances. They are in the habit of repairing in the morning and
evening to certain favourite drinking-places where numbers congregate. When

1 In placing them here the Editor follows the late Professor Garrod, but the writer of this chapter prefers to
regard them as representing a distinct order.

390 RBIGEONS AND SAND-GROUSE.

drinking, these birds thrust their bill into the water, and retain it there till their
thirst is quenched, after the manner of pigeons. ‘The young are covered with a close
and beautifully patterned down, and are able to run as soon as hatched. The only
nest is a hole scratched in the sand; and the eggs, generally three in number and
oval in shape, are double-spotted with brown and pale violet on a ground-colour
which is generally cream or buff, but more rarely pale red, the pale violet spots
being more deeply imbedded in the shell than the others. The eggs are like those
of the rails, and unlike those of the game-birds, which are always single-spotted.
Pallas’s In this genus the first toe is absent, while the short front toes

Sand-Grouse. are densely covered with feathers, and the central pair of tail-feathers -
are produced into long thread-like points. In Pallas’s sand-grouse (Syrrhaptes para-
dovus), the first quill of each wing is greatly lengthened and attenuated at the
extremity, but in the other species (S. tebetanus), which is a native of Tibet, these
feathers are much less developed. Pallas’s sand-grouse has the general colour of
the upper-parts pale buff barred with black, the breast being pale grey shading into
dirty white, and the under-parts black. The male is distinguished by having the
throat and a patch of feathers on each side of the neck rust-coloured, the rest of
the head and neck uniform greyish, and a band of white feathers barred with black
across the chest. In the female, on the other hand, the patches of feathers on the
neck and throat are pale yellow, and the throat is bounded below by a narrow black
band; the top of the head, back, and sides of the breast being spotted with black,
and the band across the chest absent. The interest attaching to this bird lies in
the incursions which it has from time to time made into Europe, more often in
comparatively small numbers, but in the years 1863 and 1888 in enormous flocks,
many of which arrived on the eastern coasts of Great Britain, and spread inland
to nearly every county, some individuals even reaching the Scilly Islands and
Ireland, and others the Shetlands and Faroes. The reason of these migrations is
without any satisfactory explanation, especially as the flocks arrive in spring.
It seems hardly probable that they could have been driven back by stress of
weather while attempting to reach their breeding-haunts, since they are able to
endure severe cold, and have arrived in South Siberia in the end of March.

Black-Bellied This species (Pterocles arenarius) represents a genus distinguished

Sand-Grouse. }hy the naked feet, the presence of the first toe, and by the central pair
of tail-feathers not being elongated. Common during the cold season in the north-
western parts of India, this bird does not breed within the limits of the empire.
It prefers the great sandy plains where water is easily accessible, but in places,
where the rivers are too distant for it to resort to, it frequents such few tanks as
are to be found. In the early morning ploughed land is a very favourite haunt,
and there large numbers may be seen squatting close together and basking in the
morning rays cf the sun. Like the rest of their kind, these birds are in the habit
of taking a midday siesta when the sun is hot, but when the weather is cold and
cloudy they are moving about all day. They scratch about among the loose loam
like so many hens till they have made a comfortable depression that fits them,
and there they repose, sunning first one side and then the other, and apparently
thoroughly enjoying the scorching heat. During their siesta they are never closely
packed, but scattered over the ground singly or in twos and threes.

SAND-GROUSE. 391

Before leaving this genus mention must be made of the little
painted sand-grouse (P. fasciatus) of India, which is one of the most
beautiful of all the group, and distinguished by its small size and black-and-white
markings on the head. In habits it differs from the large sand-grouse, and resembles
the nearly allied close-barred sand-grouse (P. lichtensteini), while as regards its
plumage it so closely approximates to the small African species (P. quadricinctus)
that it can only be distinguished by the different arrangement of the black and
white bars adorning the smaller feathers of the wing. This species, which is seldom

Other Species.

=——— WZ \ \
Le AY

AY
AN
\\X i)
nt Myst
eV ih

= WU,
Wis YZ
Wy iz

My lA es
Y MO

ZEEE
(itz

A FLOCK OF PIN-TAILED SAND-GROUSE.

if ever difficult of approach, and can run faster than the other kinds, is usually met
with in small packs or in pairs, and frequents the neighbourhood of low, bush-clad,
or sparingly-wooded hills. Mr. Thompson says it is nocturnal, and that even in
the darkest night the birds arrive at the edge of the plain at dusk and remain
feeding and going to water during the dark hours before the moon gets up, and he
has frequently noted parties of six or seven flitting about noiselessly over an opening
in the forest long after sunset.
Pin-Tailed The pin-tailed sand-grouse (Pteroclwrus alchata) belongs to a
Sand-Grouse. cenus differing from the last by the elongation of the middle tail-
feathers, in this respect resembling Syrrhaptes. This species ranges from Asia

392 PIGEONS AND SAND-GROUSE.

Minor to India, while an allied western form (P. pyrenaicus) is met with in North
Africa and South-Western Europe. Although the two are very similar, the western
bird has the wide chestnut band across the breast much darker, and the marginal
lines round the smaller feathers of the wing pale yellow instead of white. In both,
the under-parts are pure white, and the males have the throat black and the upper-
parts dull olive blotched with yellow; while in the females the throat is white and
the upper-parts are barred with black. The eastern form is a cold-weather visitant
to the north-west of India, where some of the sand-grouse habitually associate in
such countless numbers, Mr. Hume stating that he has seen flocks of at least ten
thousand, while similar observations have been made in Mesopotamia and on the
shores of the Persian Gulf.
Common A third member of the pin-tailed group is the common sand-
Sand-Grouse. crouse (P. exustus), which has the general colour of the plumage
yellowish buff, shading into dark brown on the under-parts in the male, while in
the female the breast and upper-parts of the back are spotted with brownish black,
and the rest of the upper surface barred with the same colour. This bird has a
very wide range, inhabiting the whole of India in localities where the rainfall is
moderate, the soil fairly dry, and the country open and tolerably level, and extend-
ing westwards across Asia and Northern Africa to Senegal.

W. R. OGILVIE GRANT.

SSS ——-

VULTURE-LIKE GUINEA-FKOWL ON THE GROUND (} nat. size).

CHAPTER XVII.

THe GAME-Brrps AND Ratis,—Orders GALLINZ
AND FULICARLZ.

THE general appearance of the game-birds is so well-marked that the most
inexperienced can hardly fail to recognise them. The body in all is compact
and stout, and the neck rather long, supporting a fairly large rounded head,
with a moderately long, stout bill, the upper mandible being arched and
overhanging the lower. Though the legs vary in length, they are always strong
and adapted for rapid locomotion, the first toe being present, and the feet, with
their powerful, slightly-curved claws, specially suited for scratching up the ground.
The wings are concave, fitting close to the body, and the flight, though noisy and
somewhat laboured, is often extremely rapid. The tail varies greatly in shape and
size, being enormously lengthened and developed in some species of pheasant, while
in others, as the painted quail, it is rudimentary and hidden by the upper tail-
coverts. Among the more striking skeletal characters it may be mentioned in the
first place that the palate is of the cleft (schizognathous) type, while, secondly, the
breast-bone has two deep notches on each side of the posterior margin, and its
superior process perforated to receive the bases of the metacoracoids. The feathers
of the body are provided with after-shafts, and the young are born covered with

394 GAME-BIRDS.

down, or well-feathered in the case of the megapodes, and able to run soon after
they are hatched. The nesting-habits vary, the grouse, partridges, and pheasants
habitually laying their eggs on the ground with little or no nest, while the curassows
generally build in trees, and the megapodes place their eggs among sand and
vegetable remains, where they are hatched by the warmth of the decaying matter
and the heat of the sun. In the true game-birds the eggs, if spotted at all, are
only marked with surface-spots, which are easily scratched off, and never possess
the deep, underlying marks characteristic of the eggs of the sand-grouse and rails.

GROUSE AND PTARMIGAN.
Family TETRAONIDA.

The grouse form a group of about thirty species, in which the feathering of
the legs and feet varies in the different genera; the ptarmigan and its allies

SSS

PTARMIGAN IN WINTER DRESS (4 nat. size).

having the legs and feet entirely covered with feathers, while in others, such as
the blackcock, the toes are naked, and only the legs feathered; and in the hazel-
hen group not only the feet but the greater part of the metatarsi are naked. Those
with naked feet may be distinguished from the pheasant-group by the horny

GROUSE AND PTARMIGAN. 395

processes fringing the sides of the toes and producing a comb-like appearance ;
these being absent in the pheasants, while none of the grouse have spurs on the legs.
True Grouse and Perhaps no members of this group of birds are more interesting

Ptarmigan. than the ptarmigan and its allies, on account of the seasonal changes
of plumage they undergo in order that they may assimilate themselves to the
colour of their surroundings, and be thus protected from their numerous enemies.
In the ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus) three changes of plumage, summer, autumn,
and winter, take place; during winter both sexes of the common species
becoming pure white, with the exception of the outer tail-feathers, which are
black; the male being distinguished by the presence of a small black patch in

PTARMIGAN IN SUMMER DRESS,

front of the eye. It must, however, be remarked that absolutely pure white
plumage on the back is not often met with in Scotch examples, except in unusually
severe winters: there being generally a few of the greyish autumn feathers left in
the plumage of the upper-parts which are neither replaced by white ones nor turn
white. On the other hand, in such examples as inhabit colder climates, like
the north of Scandinavia, the male at least rarely dons the full summer and autumn
plumages, a number of white winter feathers being retained throughout the
summer, and in some instances only the head, mantle, and chest change colour, the
rest of the plumage remaining white. It would thus seem that in those countries
where the summer is of short duration, sufficient time is not allowed for the full
summer and autumn changes to be effected before winter sets in once more; and
no doubt this parti-coloured plumage affords even better protection in such

396 GAME-BIRDS.

localities than if a complete change to a darker plumage took place. In summer
the male ptarmigan has the general colour of the head, upper-parts, sides, and
flanks dark brown or blackish brown, finely mottled and barred with grey and
rusty ; while the chest and upper-breast are blackish, sometimes slightly mottled
with buff; the rest of the under-parts and the middle tail-feathers remaining
white. The female has the general plumage above, as well as the middle tail-
feathers, black mixed with rufous buff, most of the feathers being edged with
white or buff, and the under-parts rufous buff barred with black. This plumage
so closely approaches in colour the general surroundings of the nesting-places,
that the bird when sitting on its eggs is almost invisible. As the autumn advances,
the darker coloured feathers in both male and female are replaced by a grey
plumage finely mottled with black, and sometimes buff, and as the season continues
the more or less complete white winter plumage already mentioned is once more
assumed. It is noteworthy that a considerable amount of the changes in colour
is due not to moulting but partly to a rearrangement of the pigment in the
feathers themselves. In all the group, except red grouse, the primary feathers
(which, like those of the tail, are only cast at the autumn moult) remain white
throughout the year. All ptarmigan are essentially high-ground birds; the red
grouse being an exception, occurring sometimes on low-ground bogs close to the
sea. Unlike the black grouse, the common ptarmigan and the rest of its allies
pair with one female only, remaining with her throughout the breeding-season.

During the nesting-season the ptarmigan is tame, and may be approached
within a few yards. On the barren hilltops and watersheds, where it finds a
home among the scattered boulders, dwarf Alpine plants, deer-grass, and mosses,
the wanderer is often startled by the hoarse croaking ery of the male, as he rises
suddenly from the ground where he was squatting invisible almost at the feet, and
settles on some neighbouring rock. On being again approached, he makes a
second short flight to some commanding position, where with outstretched neck he
watches the movements of the intruder. Soon after, one may nearly walk on the
female sitting on her eggs, or in charge of a number of beautiful chicks patterned
with yellow and brown down. The young scatter in every direction, running
with considerable speed, and helping themselves along with their still tiny,
undeveloped wings, while the anxious mother covers their retreat by going
through a performance intended, by attracting attention, to cover their retreat and
convey the idea that at least one of her wings has been broken. In a few seconds,
however, she appears to recover, and skulks off among the rocks, and when one
looks to see what has become of the young, they, too, have vanished. The ptarmigan
inhabits most of the higher mountain ranges of Europe, and possibly extends into
Central Asia, where its place is taken by the nearly allied rock-grouse (L. rupestris),
differmg in the more rufous plumage of the male in summer, though in some
localities, such as Newfoundland, a greyer phase, closely approaching the European
bird is met with. The rock-grouse inhabits Northern Asia, extending eastwards
to Japan and through Arctic America to Iceland.

In Spitzbergen a somewhat different species (LZ. hyperboreus)
occurs, with more white on the basal part of the tail-feathers, the
outer web of the outermost pair having only the terminal third black. This is

Red Grouse.

GROUSE AND PTARMIGAN. 397

shown in the accompanying cut. The most curious bird of the group is, however,
the red grouse (L. scoticws), peculiar to the British Islands, in which the changes
of plumage appear unique; this species differing from all the others in having no
white winter plumage, and the flight-feathers beimg always brownish black.
Subject to enormous variation in plumage, the extreme diverseness may be
enumerated as the black,

red, and white spotted se = ———-
phases. The first form __ = —_—— —- Baa
has the entire plumage = = = ze
black, and is by far the = = a ==
rarest; the second, in
which the general colour
is rufous chestnut, is
chiefly met with in the
west coast of Scotland,
the outer Hebrides and
Ireland; while the white-
spotted variety, in which
all the feathers of the
breast and under-parts,
and sometimes also those
of the head and_ back,
are widely tipped with
white, is apparently
dependent on latitude
and altitude.

The

nearestally

of the red grouse is the
circumpolar ripa or
willow-grouse (L. albus),
which has three distinct
seasonal plumages, those

Willow-Grouse.

of summer and autumn SPITZBERGEN PTARMIGAN.

(shown in the accom-

panying cut), closely resembling those of the red grouse, while the winter dress
is white, and the bird can then only be distinguished by its large size and thick
bill. That the red grouse is only an insular form of the willow-grouse there can
be little doubt, and it has in all probability gradually ceased to assume a white
winter dress, which in a milder climate was no longer essential for its protection.
Under these circumstances it might be inferred that in the red grouse there
would be only two changes of plumage, namely, in summer and autumn, but this,
for some at present unknown cause, is only the case with the female. In early
spring the latter begins to assume the summer dress of black mottled and barred
with buff or rufous buff, which harmonises so well with the surroundings of her
nest that she is comparatively safe from detection. In the end of June she casts

398 GAME-BIRDS.

the whole of her plumage, and by the beginning of September the change to the
dark buff-spotted autumn dress is complete, though in some examples, probably
birds of the year, a few feathers of the back may still be seen in quill as late as
December. The male, on the other hand, makes no spring change, not a single
feather being renewed between January and the end of June; but after the
breeding-season the entire plumage is replaced by the autumn feathers, which are
black, marked, barred, and often edged round the margin with buff. Thus, while
at the end of August the cock bears a considerable resemblance to the female in

WILLOW-GROUSE IN SUMMER DRESS (3 nat. size).

May, though the buff markings are never so coarse, no sooner is the autumn
plumage donned than the dark chestnut winter feathers, with their mottled black
bars, begin to appear, the whole change being completed by December. Some of
the autumn feathers are, however, often retained on the back, and may be distin-
guished from the winter plumage at a glance. The male breeds in this plumage,
and very shabby and worn he is by the end of the nesting-season. It will thus
be seen that the male and female have two changes in the season, but while
those of the latter are, as might be expected, made in spring and autumn, the
male changes in autumn and winter. The Rocky Mountain ptarmigan (L.
lewewrus) is the smallest representative of the genus, and is recognised by its
pure white tail.

GROUSE AND PTARMIGAN. 399

The next group of grouse we have to notice are the black-game,
which have the legs covered with feathers, but the feet naked, and
the sides of the toes furnished with horny comb-like appendages. Only two species
are known, the black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix) of Europe and Asia, and the Caucasian
black grouse (L. mlokostewiczt). The two sexes are commonly known as black-
cock and grey hen; and the males are distinguished by their general black plumage,
the peculiar shape of their tail, the outer feathers of which are elongate and curved
outwards at the extremity. In the blackeock the under tail-coverts are white,
while in the bird from the Caucasus these parts are black, like the rest of the

Black-Game.

WILLOW-GROUSE IN WINTER DRESS,

plumage. The two species also differ in their changes of plumage; in the former,
the young male assuming the black feathers of the adult more or less completely
by the first winter, while in the young male of the Caucasian bird a female-like
plumage is retained throughout the first winter and spring. During the autumn
moult, when the males are rarely met with, the black plumage of the head and
neck is replaced by brownish buff and black feathers, barred like those of the
female. No doubt this temporary change is protective, enabling the blackcock to
escape observation, when, owing to the heavy moult in their wings and tail they
are rendered almost incapable of flight. Black-game are polygamous, one male
pairing with a number of females, each of which undertakes the entire responsi-

400 GAME-BIRDS.

bility of rearing her young. During the pairing-season the males are in the
habit of resorting to some spot where in the morning and evening they fight for
the possession of the females; each challenging the other in turn, and going
through a series of skirmishes till the older and stronger birds have driven off the
rest and won the females. Black-game are chiefly found in the neighbourhood of
pine and birch forests bordering moorland, where bilberry, cranberry, heath, and

BLACK-GAME AT HOME,

bracken flourish, though they may sometimes be seen on the open moor. Although
their flight is straight, and their regular wing-beats somewhat laboured, they
can travel at a great rate. Black-game perch on trees, much of their food
consisting of buds and flowers, while in autumn they may be seen on the stubbles
in search of grain. The blackeock by no means confines his attentions during the
pairing-season to the hens of his own species, the hybrids produced by a cross
between this species and the capercaillie being not uncommon. Sometimes, too, he

GROUSE AND PTARMIGAN. 401

interbreeds with the red grouse, and more rarely with the willow-grouse, hazel-hen,
and pheasant, while crosses with domestic fowls have been known to occur.

The largest members of the tribe are the capercaillie or wood-
grouse, inhabiting the pine-forests of Northern and Central Europe and
Asia. Three different species and one well-marked local race are known, all of
which may be recognised by their very large size, as well as by their rounded tail
composed of eighteen feathers. The capercaillie (Tetrao wrogallus) ranges through
Northern and Central Europe to Turkestan and the Altai, but in the Urals is
represented by a paler form, with the whole of the breast and under-parts white
in the male. In typical examples of the common species the breast and under-
parts are black, with some of the feathers in the middle of the breast tipped with
white, but numerous examples are to be met with in the London market in every
intermediate stage of plumage, and are believed to be imported from some of the
southern states of Russia, though the exact locality is uncertain. In North-East

Capercaillie.

BLACK-GAME IN THE SNOW.

Siberia a different species (7. parvirostris) occurs, while the third form
(T. kamschaticus) is confined to Kamschatka. These eastern birds are dis-
tinguished from the common species by their smaller bill, and by the scapulars
being widely tipped with white; the females being also much darker on the under-
parts. From one another they may be distinguished by the white tips of the
scapulars in the smaller Kamschatkan species being wide and forming a con-
tinuous white band, while in the Siberian bird they constitute an interrupted line
of white spots. Formerly indigenous in Scotland and Ireland, the eapercaillie was
exterminated towards the end of the last century, but was reintroduced in 1837
into Scotland, and is now fairly plentiful in the counties of Perth, Stirling, and
Forfar. The capercaillie is polygamous; and its nesting-habits and eggs are very
similar to those of black-game, the latter being buff spotted with reddish
brown. As many as twelve eggs are sometimes laid, but the capercaillie hen is a
bad mother, and seldom succeeds in rearing more than one or two of her somewhat
delicate young. The male is a remarkably wary bird, much harder to obtain than
the female, and it is astonishing, considering his large size and weight, how quietly
VOL. IV.—26

402 GAME PETRDS:

he can slip out of the far side of a pine-tree without being observed. The greater
part of his time is spent among the branches of these trees, the needles forming a
considerable portion of his food, and giving the flesh a strong flavour of turpentine.
This group contains only two representatives, namely, the

American Grouse. : ' : ~% ; : . :
Canadian grouse or spruce-partridge (Canachites canadensis) of

HYBRID BETWEEN BLACKCOCK AND CAPERCAILLIE (+ nat. size).

Canada and the Northern States to the east of the Rocky Mountains, and its near
ally, Franklin’s grouse (C. franklini), inhabiting the coast-ranges to the west of
the same chain. Both are about the size of a partridge, and have sixteen tail-
CD b]
feathers: the cocks pair with only one female, probably often retaining the
’ ) to)
same mate for more than one season. The male Canadian grouse has the upper-
parts mostly grey shading into sandy or rufous white on the wings, and barred

GROUSE AND PTARMIGAN. 403

and mottled with black; while the throat, chest, and middle of the breast are
black, the sides and under-parts being tipped with white, and the tail black tipped
with chestnut. The female has the general plumage barred and mottled with
black and rufous yellow. In both the male and female of Franklin’s grouse this
chestnut band across the end of the tail is absent, and the upper tail-coverts are
tipped with white instead of grey.

The sharp- winged grouse (Falcipennis) of North-Eastern
Siberia and Kamschatka may be recognised by having the outer
flight-feathers narrowed towards the extremity and sickle-shaped. The dusky
grouse (Dendragapus obscurus) and its two allies, of the pine-forests to the east
and west of the Rocky Mountains, have the tail with twenty feathers, and the
males are provided with an inflatable air-sac on each side of the neck. The home
of the dusky grouse is the southern Rocky Mountains, from New Mexico to Idaho,
its place further west being taken by the sooty grouse (D. fuliginosus), ranging
along the Pacific Coast from California to Sitka; while, on the east side of the
Rockies, Richardson’s grouse (D. richardsoni) is found from Central Montana
northwards. Much larger than the Canadian grouse, the males of this species
have the upper-parts smoky black, mottled with grey, and the under-parts grey ;
while in the females the plumage of the upper-parts and breast is barred and
mottled with buff. In both the dusky and sooty grouse the tail is somewhat
rounded in shape, with a terminal grey band wider (more than an inch wide)
in the former. In Richardson’s grouse the grey band is absent and the tail
square.

Other Genera.

'The males of the three species of prairie-hen are characterised
by an elongate tuft of feathers, and an inflatable air-sac on each side
of the neck, but in the females these tufts are less conspicuous and the air-sacs
absent. The common prairie-hen of the Mississippi Valley (Lympanuchus amert-
canus), shown in the woodcut on p. 404, has the plumage brown above, barred
and marked with buff and black, the longer feathers of the neck-tufts beimg black,
and the under-parts pale brown, barred and fringed with white. During the
pairing-season these birds assemble in numbers in the morning on some high
dry knoll, when the males go through strange antics to captivate the females.
Inflating their orange air-sacs and erecting their long neck-tufts, they utter their
strange, booming love-note, which may be heard at a great distance in the still
morning air. The females are remarkably prolific, laying eleven to fourteen eggs
on an average, While as many as twenty or more are not unfrequently found. The
females alone undertake the incubation and care of their young, the males separat-
ing from them as soon as all the eggs are laid.

The largest American representative of the family is the sage-
grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), inhabiting the dry sage-brush
plains of the western United States. Distinguished from the allied forms by its
long pheasant-like tail of twenty feathers, with the middle pair elongate and
pointed, the male has an inflatable air-sac on each side of the neck, and attains a
weight of 8 Ibs., the female being smaller. The chief food of this bird, especially
during the winter months, is the sage-brush, though during summer it is varied
with grasses, berries, insects, and sometimes grain. The stomach of this species

Prairie-Hens.

Sage-Grouse.

404 GAME-BIRDS.

is soft, and unlike that of other game-birds, which are all provided with a muscular
gizzard. Captain Bendire gives the following account of the sage-cock’s courtship :—
“ Early one morning, in the first week of March 1877, I had the long-wished-for
opportunity to observe the actions of a single cock, while paying court to several
females near him, and I presume he did his very best. His large, pale yellow
air-sacs were fully inflated, and not only expanded forward but apparently upward
as well, rising at least an inch above his head, which, consequently, was scarcely
noticeable, giving the bird an exceedingly peculiar appearance. He looked
decidedly top-heavy, and ready to topple over at the slhghtest provocation. The

PRAIRIE-HENS,

few long, spiny feathers along the edges of the air-sacs stood straight out, and the
greyish white of the upper-parts showed in strong contrast with the black of
the breast. His tail was spread out fan-like, at right angles from the body, and
was moved from side to side with a slow, quivering movement. The wings were
trailing on the ground. While in this position he moved around with short,
stately, and hesitating steps, slowly and gingerly, evidently highly satisfied with
his performance, uttering, at the same time, low, grunting, guttural sounds, some-
what similar to the purring of a cat when pleased, only louder.”

Sharp-Tailed Another North American type is the sharp-tailed grouse, of
Grouse. which two forms are known, namely, the large dark northern race

(Pedioccetes phasianellus), inhabiting the interior of British North America, and

GROUSE AND PTARMIGAN. 405

a smaller more rufous and buff southern form (P. columbianus). Both are
characterised by their wedge-shaped tails of eighteen feathers, in which the middle
pair is larger than the rest, the males not being provided with air-sacs.

We now come to two genera forming a somewhat different
group of grouse, the various members having the lower parts of the
legs as well as the toes devoid of feathers. The ruffed grouse (Bonasa wmbellus)

Ruffed Grouse.

RUFFED GROUSE,

of North America extends over a wide range and is subject to climatic variations.
This bird is recognised by the frilled ruffles of black feathers on each side of the
neck, though in some specimens they vary to dull chestnut. The general colour
above is rufous or grey, but every intermediate stage of plumage may be met with.
Captain Bendire writes that “the mating-season occasionally commences early in
February, but usually about the beginning of March, when the familiar drumming
of the male may be frequently heard, though the bird is not often seen. This
drumming of the ruffed grouse has been often described, and many different
theories have been advanced as to how the sound is produced. It is generally

406 GAME-BIRDS.

conceded that the sound is produced by the outspread wings of the bird being
brought suddenly downward against the air, without striking anything.”

The hazel-hens form the last group of the family, and differ from
the ruffled grouse in having the plumage of the sexes different, and
lacking the conspicuous ruffles on the sides of the neck, while the tail is composed

Hazel-Hens.

of sixteen instead of eighteen feathers. Besides the common species (Tetrastes
bonasia) of Northern and Central Europe from Scandinavia to Kamschatka and
Spain to North China, a peculiar form (7. grisevventris), with the breast and under-
parts sandy grey narrowly barred with black, comes from Perm in Kast Russia,
while a third (7. severtzow?), with the outer tail-feathers black barred with white,
is found in North-East Tibet. The common species, ike its North American ally,
has two extreme phases of plumage, a rufous and a grey, and every intermediate
variety of colour can be found.

PARTRIDGES, PHEASANTS, TURKEYS, AND GUINEA-FOWLS.
Family PHASIANIDZ.

The great bulk of the typical game-birds are included in this family, which
contains fifty-nine genera, with forty-seven peculiar to the Old World, and
all the remainder American. In all, the legs and feet are naked, the latter
never being fringed with horny comb-like appendages as in the grouse, while many
have the legs armed with one or more pairs of spurs. The family may be divided
into three subfamilies—the first (Perdicine) including the partridges, francolins,
and quails, and their allies; the second (Phasianinc) the true pheasants; and the
third (Odontophorine) the American partridges and quails, in which the cutting-
edge of the upper mandible is notched. The division between the two first groups
is, however, artificial, for the partridges merge into the pheasants, the bamboo-
partridges (Bambusicola), the African and Indian spur-fowls (Ptilopachys and
Galloperdix) being the principal intermediate forms. The shape of the wing is
almost the only character of any importance for distinguishing these groups; all the
pheasants, except the typical genus, having the first primary quill shorter than the
tenth, whereas in the partridge the former is equal to or longer than the latter.
Unfortunately, the exception among the former is the genus Phasianus, which
has the first primary longer than the tenth; while, on the other hand, in some of
the partridges the tenth is somewhat the longer. It is only by using the supple-
mentary character of the length of the tail, coupled with the shape of the wing,
that it can be decided to which of these divisions some of the species should be
referred. Thus the first group of partridges may be briefly characterised as having
the first primary quill longer than or equal to (rarely shorter than) the tenth, and
the length of the tail less, usually much less, than that of the wing.

Snow-Partridges The snow-partridge (Lerwa nivicola), inhabiting the higher
and Snow-Cocks. Himalayan ranges and extending eastwards into Western China,
which is somewhat peculiar in having the upper half of the legs feathered, has the
plumage of the upper-parts in both sexes black, narrowly barred with white and
rufous, while the general colour of the breast and under-parts is deep chestnut, and

AIA
WAH HTT
HIk\ I

‘(ozis yeu F) LYHAOD NI SINVSVAHd ASANIHO

PARTRIDGES. 409

the coral-red legs are armed in the male with stout spurs; the tail having fourteen
feathers. Closely allied to but distinguished by their larger size, differently shaped
wing, and tail of eighteen feathers, are the two rare species of pheasant-grouse
(Tetraophasis) from the highlands of Central and Eastern Tibet, and from them
we pass to the snow-cocks which are the giants among the tribe, and only found at
great elevations in the mountains of Asia. The Himalayan snow-cock (Tetrogallus
himalayensis), one of the largest of the six species, and not much inferior to
the capereaillie in size, ranges through the Western Himalaya to the Hindu-
Kush, and northwards through the Altai. In the male the feathers of the upper-
parts are mostly grey, finely mottled and margined with buff, while there is a large
chestnut patch on each side of the nape, and a band of the same colour surrounds
the throat, which, together with the chin and eyebrow stripes, is white. The
breast is white barred with black, and the rest of the under-parts mostly grey, the
sides and flanks being margined with chestnut and buff The female scarcely differs
in plumage, but may be distinguished by her smaller size and the absence of the
blunt spurs of the male. These birds are confined to the snowy ranges above the
limits of forest, but are driven by the snows of winter to perform one or in some
places two annual migrations to the middle regions. In summer they are only
seen near the limits of vegetation, but from June till August, however much the
sportsman may wander on the highest accessible places of the Gangetic Hills, only
a few are met with, the majority, no doubt, retiring across the snowy range into
Chinese Tibet to breed. At the beginning of September they are first seen near
the top of the higher grassy ridges, and after the first general severe fall of snow
come down in numbers on some of the bare exposed hills in the forest regions,
where they remain till the end of March. Gregarious, and often congregating in
packs, sometimes to the number of twenty or thirty, snow-cocks never enter the
forests or jungle, avoiding spots where the grass is long. When feeding, they
walk up hill, picking up tender blades of grass and young shoots of plants,
occasionally stopping to scratch up bulbous roots, of which they are fond.
Red-Legged Easily recognised by their transversely barred sides and flanks,
Partridges. which contrast strongly with the rest of the plumage of the breast
and under-parts, the red-legged partridges are represented by half a dozen
species. In these birds the tail is composed of fourteen feathers, and the sexes
are similar, except that the male is provided with a pair of blunt spurs. In the
mountains of Southern Europe, ranging from the Pyrenees to the Balkans, the so-
called Greek partridge is found; but in the Grecian Islands and Cyprus its place
is taken by the nearly allied chukar (Caccabis chukar), distinguished by having
the lores or space in front of the eye white instead of black. Its range is extensive,
extending across Asia to China, and reaching from the sea-level to an elevation of
sixteen thousand feet ; while the bird apparently flourishes as well in desert-country
as in cultivated hills. Their surroundings largely affect the chukar both in size and
colour; the paler-coloured birds from the Persian Gulf differing widely from the
dark forms found in Cyprus and the Himalaya. The common red-legged or French
partridge (C. rufa), shown in the woodcut on next page, is a native of South-West
Europe, and was introduced into England towards the end of the last century. It
is a handsome bird, the upper-parts being olive-brown shading into chestnut on the

410 GAME-BIRDS.

top of the head and mantle; the eyebrow stripe, chin, and throat being white, and
the throat bounded by a black band. The feathers of the neck and chest are broadly
edged with black, while those of the sides and flanks are grey barred alternately
with white, black, and chestnut ; the bill, legs, and feet being bright coral-red. Unlike:
the common partridge, the red-legged species sometimes perches on trees, walls, and
palings, and when pursued always prefers to escape by running. During the
pairing-season the males are pugnacious, fighting not only among themselves,
but with the common species. The eggs vary from ten to eighteen, and are:
deposited in a hollow in the ground among rough grass or in growing crops.

FRENCH PARTRIDGES (3 nat. size).

Ronham's The pretty little Bonham’s partridge (Ammoperdia bonhami),

Partridge. known in India as the sisi, and Hey’s partridge (A. heyi), found on
both shores of the Red Sea, form a small well-marked group nearly allied to the
last, but with the plumage of the two sexes different, the males having the feathers
of the sides and flanks margined with black instead of being cross-barred, while
the legs are never armed with spurs. The sisi has a wider range, being found from
North-West India to the Euphrates Valley, and extending southwards to Aden.
The male may be recognised by its grey head and neck, with a white black-edged
band passing across the forehead and along the sides of the head to the ear-coverts,
the general colour of the rest of the plumage being vinous buff. In the male of
Hey’s partridge the head and neck are vinous fawn-colour, and the upper-parts
much paler. The females of both are almost indistinguishable, having the head and

PARTRIDGES. A4Il

neck isabelline, faintly marked and barred with rufous buff, and the dark marking
on the upper-parts coarser. Bare broken ground is the favourite home of the sisis,
and they may be met with in suitable localities from sea-level up to about seven
thousand feet. Unlike most partridges, they care little for concealment, and when
they wish to hide, the colour of their plumage harmonises so perfectly with the
sand and stones, that it is only necessary for them to keep still to avoid detection.

We now come to a large group of spur-legged partridges known
as francolins, which include more than forty species, the great majority
of which are natives of Africa. One species, the common francolin (Francolinus
vulgaris), is, however, found in Cyprus, and ranges across South-West Asia to
Northern India, while the painted francolin (F: pictus) is peculiar to Western and
Central India, and the Chinese francolin (F. chinensis) inhabits the Indo-Chinese
countries. In all, except two, the males are provided with at least one, and in certain
cases two pairs of sharp spurs, and in some of the African forms the females are
almost as well armed. The common and painted francolins are exceptions to the
rule, the male of the former having but one pair of blunt wart-like spurs, while in
the latter even these are absent. The common francolin or black partridge once
extended over a wider range and inhabited many of the countries bordering the
Mediterranean, until recently a few pairs still remaining in Sicily. The male has
the sides of the head, chin, throat, and under-parts deep black, the sides and flanks
being more or less spotted with white according to age; there is a white band
below the eye, and a wide chestnut ring surrounds the neck, while the top of the
head and wings are dark brown edged with buff, and the lower back and rump
black narrowly barred with white. The female has the chestnut collar confined to
the nape, and the general colour of the upper-parts browner, while the sides of the
head are buff shading into white on the throat, and the under-parts white mixed
with buff and barred with black. This bird, in common with all the francolins,
loves valleys where high grass and jungle are interspersed with cultivated ground.
Although the males and females of this and several other species differ considerably
in plumage, in the great majority of cases they are very much alike; an instance
of this occurring in two closely allied African species. Thus, while the male of the
Natal francolin (Ff! natalensis) has the under-parts white with V-shaped black marks
on the feathers, and is similar to the female, in the allied Hildebrand’s francolin
(F. hildebrandi) from Kilima Njaro, and the Johnston’s francolin (F. johnston?)
from the Shiré Highlands, although the males are very similiar to the Natal bird,
and only differ in the shape of the black marking on the under-parts, the females
are different, their general colour below being bright rust-colour. One of the
largest species is Jackson’s francolin (F. jackson?) from Masailand, which is only
rivalled in size by Erckell’s francolin (F. erckelli) from Abyssinia. An allied genus
includes the bare-throated francolins (Pternistes) of Africa, of which nine large
species are known, these being easily recognised by their bare throats covered with
red or orange skin. In habits they closely resemble the true francolins.

The next genus is that of the true partridges, which are natives
of Europe and Asia, where they are represented by four species
belonging to two distinct types. The common partridge (Perdix cinerea), and the
bearded partridge (P. daurica), with a black horse-shoe mark on the breast, have

The Francolins.

True Partridges.

412 GAME-BIRDS.

eighteen tail-feathers, and the under-parts of the body devoid of black crossbars ;
while to the second group belong Hodgson’s partridge (P. hodgsonz) from South
Tibet, and the smaller more northern form (P. sifanica) from Kansu, both of which
have only sixteen tail-feathers, and the under-parts barred with black. The common
partridge ranges over Europe and Western and Central Asia, as far, at least, as the
Barabinska Steppes and the Altai. Until recently the chestnut horse-shoe mark
on the breast was considered as distinctive of the male, the female having this

A COVEY OF GREY PARTRIDGES,

reduced to a few chestnut spots, or absent. It is true, indeed, that in old birds the
differences in this patch are generally characteristic of the male and female, but in
the majority of immature females the horse-shoe is well developed, and nearly or
quite as large as in the adult male. Immature birds of both sexes may be recog-
nised by having the first flight-feather pointed at the extremity,and the legs yellowish
brown ; while in adults this feather is rounded at the tip, and the legs are slate-
colour. In the south-eastern counties of England young females rarely have a
well-marked horse-shoe, and in some instances all trace of chestnut is absent. On
the other hand, in most examples from other parts, this patch is greatly developed,

PARTRIDGES. 413

and oceasionally is nearly as large as in adult males. The only character for distin-
guishing the sexes is in the lesser and median wing-coverts; in the male, each of
these feathers being brownish buff, thickly vermiculated with black, with a chest-
nut blotch on either web, and a well-defined pale buff shaft-stripe down the middle,
while in the female the ground-colour is mostly black with wide-set transverse
buff bars, in addition to the buff shaft-stripe common to both sexes.

Passing over the Madagascar partridge (Margaroperdix mada-
gascariensis), distinguished by having only twelve tail-feathers, we
come to the pigmy Indian partridges, forming two genera with five species, all no
larger than the quail, but with handsome plumage. In all, the plumage of the
sexes is different, and the tail feebly developed, being less than half the length of
the wing; in the first genus containing twelve feathers, and in the latter ten. The
jungle bush-quail (Pedicula asiatica), and the rock bush-quail (P. argunda), are
the representatives of the first genus. In the males the breast and under-parts are
white barred with black, but while in the former the chin and throat are bright
chestnut, in the latter they are dull brick-red. The females have the under-parts
vinaceous buff, but in the jungle bush-quail the chin and throat are bright chestnut
as in the males, while in the other the middle of the chin and throat are whitish.
The distribution of these specics is complementary to each other, that is to say,
though both are found over the greater part of India, the localities they affect are
widely different, the jungle-quail being met with on hilly ground covered with
moderately thick forest and jungle, while the rock-quail prefers half-barren sandy
or rocky plains, studded with low scattered bushes. Mr. Hume describes the
former as “little, bustling, ground-birds, always keeping, according to my ex-

Allied Genera.

perience, in packs or families ; never coming out into the open; always feeding in
grass, jungle, or stubble long enough to hide their tiny selves.” The painted bush-
quails (Microperdiz), are chiefly found in rocky ground interspersed with bushes,
fern, and high grass, and are met with in coveys, and prized by the natives on
account of their pugnacious habits.

These partridges form a group characterised by the short tail, its
length being less than half that of the wing, and also by their
peculiarly long and rather straight nails, that of the first toe being well developed.

Tree-Partridges.

There are nearly twenty species, ranging from the Himalaya, through the Indo-
Chinese countries to Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Formosa, and Hainan. Unlike the
preceding genera, which are all ground-birds, though individuals may occasionally
perch, these partridges are not unfrequently in the habit of sitting in trees. The
colour in most of the species is a mixture of olive-brown, black, and rufous, but in
the species (Arboricola ardens) from Hainan the chest is ornamented with a patch
of fiery red. All these birds frequent hill-forest, the common tree-partridge (A.
torqueolus) ranging to an elevation of fourteen thousand feet, and being seldom
flushed except with dogs; but when they rise their flight is strong and swift. The
eggs differ from those of other partridges in being pure white. The plumage in
all but one is practically identical in both sexes, but in the tree-partridge of the
outer ranges of the Himalaya it differs considerably. In both male and female the
general colour of the upper-parts is olive-brown barred with black, and the sides
and flanks are grey, widely edged with chestnut, and spotted with white ; but the

414 GAME-BIRDS.

male has the top of the head bright chestnut, the eye stripes, sides of the face, chin,
and throat black, more or less margined with white, and there is a broad white
band across the front of the crop. In the female the top of the head is brown
marked with black, and the sides of the head are rufous spotted with black, the
white band being absent.

The members of the three genera now to be considered are
peculiar in having the nail of the first toe rudimentary. In the
ferruginous wood-partridges (Caloperdix) the legs of the male are provided with
one or more pairs of spurs. The general colour of the head, neck, and under-parts
is bright rust-red, the upper-back black and white, the lower-parts black with rusty |

Wood-Partridges.

RED-CRESTED WOOD-PARTRIDGES (3 nat. size).

red markings, and the wings olive-brown, spotted with black. The three species
respectively inhabit the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Java and Borneo. The
red-crested wood-partridge (Rollulus roulroul), figured in the woodcut, is an
inhabitant of 'Tenasserim and the Malay Peninsula and Islands. In both sexes there
is a tuft of long hair-like bristles on the middle of the forehead, and the claw on the
first toe is rudimentary. The male has also a long, fan-shaped maroon crest of hairy
feathers, and the rest of the head and neck black with a white band between the
eyes, the wings being maroon glossed with purplish blue, the remainder of the
upper-parts rich green with steely blue reflections, the under-parts black glossed
with blue, and the base of the bill, naked skin round the eye, as well as the legs
and feet, scarlet. In the female the head is blackish grey, the wings chestnut, and
the rest of the plumage bright grass-green, shading into greyish green on the
under-parts. This green colour is an unusual tint among game-birds, found else-

OUATESiS - 415,

where only in the males of the blood-pheasants. These birds ramble about the
hillsides, at an elevation of about three thousand to four thousand feet, in bevies or
parties of six or eight to a dozen ; and are exceedingly swift of foot, never leaving
the jungle, and rarely taking wing. Their note is a soft mellow whistle, chiefly
heard in the morning, or when they have been separated. Their nearest ally is the
black wood-partridge (Melanoperdix niger), ranging over much the same area, but
not found in Java. The male has the whole plumage glossy black, while that of
the female is mostly chestnut, the scapulars barred with black, and the upper-parts,
sides, flanks, and under tail-coverts mottled with the same colour.

a LZE=

COMMON QUAIL (3 nat. size).

The most advanced form of the partridge type of wing is found
in the quails, as well as in the snow-partridges ; all of which have the
first flight-feather but little shorter than the second, and equal to the third, while
the tenth is much the shortest. Accordingly, when the wing is expanded the
vertical angle of an imaginary triangle is formed by the second quill, instead of
by the fifth or sixth. The common or migratory quail (Coturnix communis),
ranges over an enormous area, being found over Europe, Africa, and Asia, north of
the Himalaya. In Eastern Asia a distinct species, the Japanese quail (C. japonica),
is found, but during the breeding-season many of the common quail invade these
countries, with the result that the two interbreed. The male of the common quail
may be recognised by its white throat with a black anchor-shaped mark down the

Quails.

416 GAME-BIRDS.

middle, while in the Japanese species the throat is uniformly dull brick-red. The
females may be distinguished by the former having the white feathers covering the
throat short and rounded, while in the latter they are elongate and pointed, forming
quite a beard. In South Africa a race of the common quail (C. capensis) occurs,
in typical examples of which the males have the sides of the head, as well as the
ehin and throat, bright rufous-chestnut, and the black anchor - shaped mark
characteristic of the migratory species well developed. The common quail inter-
breeds freely with these birds, and the results are seen in many of the males,
having the chin and throat partially chestnut. Another Australian quail (Synwcus
australis) has no anchor-shaped mark on the throat, and the under-parts marked
with V-shaped black bars; an allied species with the under-parts dull rufous in-
habiting Timor and Flores. The last genus includes the smallest and most beauti-
fully marked birds of the group; the tail being very short, hidden by the upper
tail-coverts, and with only eight feathers. The common painted quail (Hxcalja-
toria chinensis) inhabits the Indo-Chinese countries, especially the lower hills
where the ground is swampy and grass-covered. The male has the upper-parts
brown, barred and marked with black, and ornamented with whitish shaft-stripes ;
the forehead, sides of the head and neck, and wing-coverts are washed with slaty
blue, the chest and flanks slaty blue, and the rest of the under-parts rich chest-
nut. In very old birds the chestnut takes the place of the slate, till very little of
the latter remains on the under-parts.

Bamboo We have now to turn our attention to that group of the family

Partridges. with a monal type of wing, that is to say with the first flight-feather
shorter than the tenth. As already noted, the true pheasants are the only excep-
tion in this respect, but although the shape of their wings is partridge-like, their
long tails at once serve to distinguish them. Little need be said of the African
rufous-breasted partridge (Ptilopachys), ranging from Senegambia and the Gold
Coast to Abyssinia, and inhabiting broken ground and stony hillsides. The plumage
of both sexes is similar, and the male is never armed with spurs; though
these appendages are sometimes developed even in the females of the bamboo-
partridges. Here the sexes of the three species have the plumage alike; and in *
general appearance they recall the male of the common partridge, this being
especially the case with the Chinese species (Bambusicola thoracicus), in which the
sides of the head, throat, and forepart of the neck are chestnut, while the eyebrow-
stripe and crop are grey. The nearly allied Formosan B. sonorivox, may be
recognised by having the sides of the head dark grey; while Fytch’s partridge
(B. fytchi) from India, Burma, and China has the eye-stripe buff The note of this
species is loud, harsh, somewhat fowl-like, and different from the low whistle of
the tree-partridges. Found in heavy forest jungle, this partridge generally goes
in pairs, and is difficult to flush, unless hard pressed.
sae ey The Indian spur-fowl are more pheasant-like, having a rather
long tail, and the plumage of the sexes different. The legs in both
sexes are armed with spurs, the males having two, and sometimes three, pairs,
while the females have one or rarely two, although occasionally two spurs are
developed on one leg and one on the other. The three rather large species are
peculiar to India and Ceylon; the male Ceylon spur-fowl being more striking in

BLOOD-PHEASANTS 417

appearance than its Indian allies, having the plumage of the head, neck, back, and
under-parts black and white, the rest of the upper-parts dark chestnut, ornamented
on the wing-coverts with white black-edged spots, and the quills and tail black.
The female has the head blackish, the chin and throat white, and the rest of the
plumage chestnut, finely pencilled with black. Colonel Legge observes that “the
shy habits of this bird would prevent its being detected in most places where it is
even abundant, were it not for its noisy cries or cackling, so well known to all
who have wandered in the Ceylon jungles. It frequents tangled brakes, thickets
in damp nalas, forest near rivers, jungle over hillsides, and in fact any kind of
cover which will afford it entire concealment. It runs with great speed, and has
a knack of noiselessly beating a retreat at one time, while at another it ventriloquises
its exciting notes until the sportsman becomes fairly exasperated, and gives up the
attempt he has made to stalk it in disgust. The cock-birds begin to call about six
in the morning, and when one has fairly commenced, the curious ascending scale
of notes is taken up from one to another until the wood resounds with their cries.
They always seem to keep in small parties, which perhaps consist of the young of
the year with their parents.” The nest, a mere hollow in the ground, is situated
in the forest, or in thick jungle, under the shelter of a rock or near the projecting
root of a large tree, and it would seem that the full number of the eggs laid is
four, but the red spur-fowl (Galloperdix spadiceus) lays as many as ten.

The pheasant-quail (Ophrysia swperciliosa), occurring in the
north-west of India during the cold season, is probably a native of
Tibet, but is so rarely met with that scarcely anything is known of its habits.
Never coming into the open, it prefers to skulk in the long grass, whence it can
only be flushed with the help of dogs; and when on the wing its flight is slow and
heavy. This is the smallest of the pheasant kind, being no larger than the
common quail, but its affinities are with the blood-pheasants, as is shown by
the shape of the wing with its short first primary, the length of the tail, and the
long rather loose plumage. The male has the general colour grey washed with
olive, each feather being edged with black, and the head and throat deep black, the
former marked with various white bands. The female has the general colour
warm light brown, paler on the under-parts, and spotted and marked with black,
while the chin and throat are whitish, The much larger blood-pheasants are
represented by three species from Tibet and Western China; the males being
characterised by the peculiar grass-green colour of the plumage. The blood-
pheasant (/thagenes cruentus) found in the higher regions of Nipal, Sikhim, and
Bhutan is a handsome bird, the male having the forehead and a ring round the

Blood-Pheasants.

eye black, the crown buff, and the upper-parts grey, washed on the wings with
green, and margined on the upper tail-coverts and tail with crimson; the cheeks,
throat, and under tail-coverts being crimson; and the rest of the under-parts
mostly green, with some of the feathers more or less margined with crimson. The
naked skin round the eye and the legs are bright coral-red, the latter being some-
times armed with no less than four pairs of spurs. The female is mostly brown,
lighter on the upper-parts, and reddish below, while the back of the head and nape
are slaty grey. Found at elevations ranging from ten thousand to fourteen
thousand feet, these birds are abundant in many of the valleys among forests of
VOL. IV.— 27

418 GAME-LIRDS.

pine and juniper. They seldom or never crow, but emit a weak, cackling noise.
When put up, they take a short flight, and then run to shelter, During September
flocks of ten to fifteen may be seen, males and females in almost equal proportions ;
and in December packs of seventy to one hundred birds collect.

The tragopans or horned pheasants, so often misnamed Argus
pheasants, include five large and magnificent species, unsurpassed for
beauty and the harmony of their tints by any other members of the group. The

Tragopans.

CRIMSON TRAGOPAN (2 nat. size).

males are provided with a pair of erectile, fleshy, blue horns inserted on each side
of the crown above the eyes, and during the breeding-season the throat is covered
with a brightly-coloured lappet, hanging down several inches when the birds are
excited by passion, but barely visible during the winter. Their habitat includes
the higher wooded ranges of Northern India and China. By far the most
brilliantly coloured species is the crimson tragopan (Tragopan satyra) ranging in
the Himalaya from Kumaon to Bhutan. The male has the top and sides of the
head black, the neck, mantle, and under-parts orange-carmine, and the rest of the
upper-parts olive-brown, each feather being ornamented at the tip with a round

MONALS. 419

white spot, partially or entirely margined with black; the outer wing-coverts being
edged on each side with dark orange-carmine. The throat-wattle is salmon-colour
with transverse blue bars, and the legs are pale flesh. The general colour of the
female is black above, mottled and spotted with various shades of buff, the chin
and throat being whitish, and the under-parts sandy finely marked with black and
pale buff or whitish shaft-spots. These birds, writes Mr. Hume, in summer “are
to be found at elevations of from eight thousand to ten thousand feet, always in
thick cover, by preference in patches of the slender reed-like ringal bamboo, in the
neighbourhood of water. Although always on hills near to, or bordering on the
snow, they are never seen amongst it, and seem to shun it as much as the blood-
pheasant delights in it.”. Beavan remarks that “the winter months, when the under-
wood is not so dense as at other seasons, are the only period of the year at which
even natives can get at them. The usual plan of capture is by making a hedge of
bushes about three feet high, extending down the sides of a hill like the sides of a
triangle with the base open. The sides are made to gradually converge until near
the apex, where small gaps are left, in each of which a noose is placed. The birds
are then slowly driven by men on foot walking in line... . A curious fact with
regard to this mode of capture is, that the proportion of males to females is
generally four or five of the former to one of the latter.”. The nuptial dances of
this bird are described by Bartlett, who writes that the “males can only be seen to
advantage in the early morning and in the evening, as they conceal themselves
during the day ; the females, however, are less retiring in their habits. When the
male is not excited, the horns lie concealed under two triangular patches of red
feathers, their points meeting on the occiput; the large wattle is also concealed or
displayed at the will of the bird. The male has three distinct modes of showing
off. After walking about rather excitedly, he places himself in front of the female,
with the body slightly crouching upon the legs, and the tail bent downwards; the
head is then violently jerked downwards, and the horns and wattle become con-
spicuous. The wings have a flapping motion, and the bright red patch on them is
fully displayed. The whole of the neck appears to be larger than usual during
this action, so do also the horns, which, moreover, vibrate with every motion.
This scene is concluded by the bird suddenly drawing himself up to his full height,
with his wings expanded and quivering, the horns erect, and the wattle fully
displayed. The second mode consists of simply erecting all his feathers, and
elevating one shoulder, thereby exposing a greater surface to view, without, how-
ever, showing his head-dress. The third mode is by simply standing boldly erect
on an elevated perch, giving the head one or two sudden shakes, and causing the
horns and wattle to appear for a few moments.”
Quite unsurpassed among the pheasant tribe for splendour of
plumage, the four species of monal are characterised by the males
having most of the upper-parts glittering with metallic colours, and the head,

Monals.

except in Sclater’s monal (Lophophorus sclaterz), adorned with an elongate crest
of racquet-shaped plumes. In place of the crest in the latter species, the crown is
covered with beautifully curled feathers. The haunts of these birds are practically
the same as those of the tragopans, that is to say, the highest forest-regions of the
Himalaya and other Asiatic mountains, vegetation and considerable altitude

420 GAME-BIRDS.

being essentials to their existence. The male Himalayan monal (LZ. resplendens)
has the crest and head metallic-green shot with blue and purple, the back and
sides of the neck purple shading into reddish copper and glossed with golden-green ;
the mantle and upper tail-coverts shining golden-green; the outer wing-coverts
bluish green; the inner feathers, scapulars, and rump bronzy crimson in some
lights, and purple edged with bluish green in others; the lower back snow-white :
the tail pale chestnut; and the under-parts black shghtly glossed with green on
the throat. The female has a much more sombre plumage, the general colour of
the upper-parts, chest, and sides of the breast being black, with a buff centre to
each feather, the lower back and upper tail-coverts irregularly barred with the .
same colours, the sides of the head reddish buff mottled with black, the chin and
throat white, and the rest of the under-parts mottled with black and buff, and with
more or less distinct white shaft-stripes. The tail is black, barred with rufous and
tipped with white. This species ranges through the forests of the Himalaya from
Afghanistan to Bhutan. Mr. Hume says “there are few sights more striking
where birds are concerned, than that of a grand old cock shooting out horizontally
from the hillside just below one, glittermg and flashing in the golden sunlight, a
gigantic rainbow-tinted gem, and then dropping stone-like, with closed wings, into
the abyss below.” And Wilson writes that “the monal is found on almost every
hill of any elevation from the first great ridge above the plains to the limits of forest,
and in the interior it is the most abundant of our game-birds. . . . In summer, when
the rank vegetation which springs up in the forest renders it impossible to see
many yards around, few are to be met with except near the summits of the great
ridges jutting from the snow, where morning and evening, when they come out to
feed, they may be seen in the open glades of the forest and on the green slopes
above. At that time no one would imagine they were half so numerous as they
really are; but as the cold season approaches, and the rank grass and herbage die
away, they begin to collect together, the woods seem full of them, and in some
places hundreds may be put up in a day’s walk. . . . In autumn they all descend
into the forest, frequenting those parts where the ground is thickly covered with
decayed leaves, under which they search for grubs; and they descend lower as
winter sets in and the ground becomes frozen or covered with snow. ... Still, in
the severest weather, when fall after fall has covered the ground to a great depth
in the higher forests, many remain there the whole winter; these are almost all
males, and probably old birds. In spring all in the lower parts gradually ascend
as the snow disappears. . . . In summer they are more separated, but do not keep
in individual pairs, several being often found together. It may be questioned
whether they do pair or not in places where they are at all numerous; if they do,
it would appear that the union is dissolved as soon as the female begins to sit, for
the male seems to pay no attention whatever to her whilst sitting, or to the young
brood when hatched, and is seldom found with them. The eall of the monal is a
loud, plaintive whistle, which is often heard in the forest at daybreak or towards
evening, and occasionally at all hours of the day.” The eggs are placed in a
depression in the ground scratched by the female under some sheltering rock or
massive root, and are usually four or five in number, and dull white speckled with
red. In Chamba a second species is found lacking the white lower back of the

PHEASANTS. 421

common monal, and having the breast and under-parts glossed with green. While
the male is represented by only very few skins, the female is still unknown. In
the mountains of North-Eastern Tibet and Western China the equally brilliant and
even larger bird L. Vhwysii occurs, the male being recognised by his black tail
glossed with bluish green and spotted with white. Lastly, the splendid Sclater’s
monal, already mentioned, inhabits the Mishmi Hills in Assam, and has, in
addition to its peculiarly feathered head, the whole of the lower back, rump, and
upper tail-coverts white, and a white band across the chestnut tail.
Fire-Backed The crestless fire-backed pheasants from the Malayan region
Pheasants. are about the size of bantam hens, and further resemble these birds
in the shape of their rather short and vaulted tails. In two species (Acomus
erythrophthalmus and A. pyronotus) the males have the lower-back and rump
fiery bronze-red, while the females are entirely black, glossed with purplish or
steel-blue, and armed with spurs like the male; but in the third, from Western
Sumatra, the male has the plumage entirely black, and thus closely resembles the
females of the other species. Closely allied to the above are the crested fire-backed
pheasants, inhabiting the same countries, but ranging farther north into Tenasserim,
the Shan States, and Cochin-China. The males are adorned with a full, erect
crest, composed of bare-shafted feathers, supporting a bunch of plumes at the
extremity, the sides of the head are naked and covered with large wattles, and
the tail is long and shaped somewhat like that of the jungle-fowl. The male of
Vieillot’s fire-back (Lophura rufa) is further characterised by having the neck,
mantle, and breast purplish blue, the lower-back and rump bronze-red, and the
middle tail-feathers white. All the rest of the under-parts are black, the feathers
of the sides and flanks with white shaft-stripes, the naked, facial skin and wattles
bright blue, the legs and feet vermilion, and the strong spurs whitish. The female
has the crest less developed, and the general colour of the plumage chestnut; the
throat white; the feathers of the neck and chest margined with white on the
sides; the breast and sides of the belly black, mottled with chestnut, and edged
with white; and the rest of the under-parts white, mottled with black. The soft
parts are like those of the male, but paler, and there are no spurs on the legs.
Bulwer’s One of the most splendid of the group is Bulwer’s pheasant
Pheasant. (Lobiophasis bulweri) of North Borneo, in which the male has no
less than thirty-two tail-feathers, and the female two pairs less. In the adult
~ male the neck and chest are deep crimson, the rest of the plumage mostly black,
each feather being edged with steel-blue at the extremity, and the long, curved
tail pure white. The head is almost entirely naked, having only a few feathers
down the middle of the crown, and ornamented with three pairs of elongate
wattles, all being bright blue; while the legs, feet, and spurs are red.
Fared The five species of eared pheasants, from Central and Eastern Asia,
Pheasants. are birds of large size, their loose hairy plumage making them look
even larger than they really are. In all except Crossoptilum lewcwrum, in which
the male appears to have more white in the tail than the female, the plumage of the
sexes is alike, although the females lack the blunt spurs of the males. The top of
the head is clothed with soft, curly feathers; the sides of the face being naked and
covered with warts; while the ear-coverts are produced into long white tufts on

422 GAME-BIRDS.

each side of the head. The tail is long, full, and rounded, the number of feathers
varying from twenty to twenty-four in the different species, and the extremities
of the middle pairs being much curved, with the webs long and free.

In Hodgson’s eared pheasant (C. tibetanum), of Tibet and Western China, the
whole of the plumage is white, with the exception of the black top of the head,

MANTCHURIAN EARED PHEASANT (! nat. size).

the dark brown quills, and the tail-feathers which are purplish bronze towards the
base, shading into dark greenish blue and deep purple towards the extremities.
The naked sides of the face are scarlet, and the legs coral-red. The Mantchurian
eared pheasant (C. mantchuricum) figured in the illustration is a somewhat
differently coloured bird; the back of the head and neck being black shading into
brown on the mantle and wings, and dirty white on the lower-back, rump, and
upper-tail coverts; while the chin and throat, as well as the ear-tufts, are white,
and the chest is brownish black, gradually becoming lighter on the under-parts.

PHEASANTS, 423

The range of this species includes the mountains of Mantchuria and Northern
China. These birds are met with in the pine-forests at an elevation of from
ten thousand to twelve thousand feet. They are gregarious in their habits, and
forty or fifty may sometimes be met with roosting in company on the pine-trees.
Being remarkably hardy birds, they do well in confinement, and soon become
exceedingly tame.

On the lower altitudes of the middle ranges of the Himalaya,
and thence through the Burmo-Chinese countries, we meet with
pheasants approaching the crested forms of the fire-backed pheasants. Nearly a
dozen species belong to this group, which includes the Kalij and silver pheasants,
as well as the somewhat aberrant Swinhoe’s pheasant (Gennwus swinhoei). All
have a more or less elongate recumbent crest of hairy feathers, the sides of the
head naked, and the long tail laterally compressed and vaulted, with the middle
pair of feathers at least three times the length of the outer ones. The legs of the
male are armed with a pair of
stout spurs, but in the females
these appendages are wanting.
The most western form of the
genus, the white-crested kalij
(G. albocristatus), mbhabits the
Western Himalaya and Nipal;
the male having the long hairy
crest white, the general colour
of the upper-parts black, glossed
with purplish and steel-blue, and
margined, especially on the rump,
with white; while the fore-part
of the neck is dirty white,
gradually shading into brown
on the under-parts. Proceeding
eastwards into Nipal, we meet HORSFIELD’S PHEASANT.
with a species (G. leucomelanus),
differing only in having the crest black, glossed with purple; while still farther
east in Sikhim and Bhutan the darker form (G. melanonotus) has the black
crest of the latter, but the white terminal margins on the feathers of the rump and
upper-parts replaced by deep purplish blue. In Bhutan, Assam, and Burma, we
find Horsfield’s pheasant, which is the darkest of all, the whole plumage being
black, glossed with purplish, or steel-blue, and only the lower-back and rump being
edged with white; and we may consider this species as representing the ancestral
stock from which all the others have been derived. There are numerous other
species, among which we select the silver pheasant (G. nycthemerus) of Southern
China, noticeable for its white upper plumage, ornamented with dark markings.

Koklass Including seven species, these pheasants range through the
Pheasants. Himalaya from Afghanistan to Tibet and Mantchuria. They
may all be recognised by the long crest of the cocks, and by the feathers above
the ears being elongated to form tufts surpassing the crest in length. The sides

Kalij Pheasants.

424 GAME-BIRDS.

of the head are feathered, and there is no marked naked space surrounding the
eye; the tail is elongated and wedge-shaped, and the upper tail-coverts are long,
extending more than half-way towards the extremity. In the typical koklass
(Pucrasia macrolopha) of the Western Himalaya, the male has the crest bright
buff, a large snow-white patch on each side of the neck, and the rest of the head,
including the long feathers above the ears and the throat, black, glossed with dark
green; the upper-parts, sides, and flanks being grey, with black middles to the
feathers; the wing-coverts similarly marked, but browner, and tinged with rufous;
and the middle of the breast and under-parts dark chestnut. The middle tail-

SILVER PHEASANT (2 nat. size). ,

feathers are mostly chestnut, the outer pair black shading into reddish brown
towards the base, and tipped with white; while the bill is black, and the legs and
feet are grey or purplish, and armed with a pair of spurs. The female has a much
shortes crest, and no ear-tufts; the plumage being black, variously marked with
sandy rufous and buff; the throat and under-parts white, the latter being marked
with black; and the under tail-coverts chestnut, tipped with white. Of this
species Mr. Wilson remarks that it is “common to the whole of the wooded regions
from an elevation of four thousand feet to nearly the extreme limits of forest, but
is most abundant in the lower and intermediate ranges. The koklass is of a
rather retired and solitary disposition. It is generally found singly or in pairs;
and, except the brood of young birds, which keep pretty well collected till near the

PHEASANTS. 425

end of the winter, they seldom congregate much together.” Unlike the great
majority of their kind, these birds do not separate after the business of incubation
is over, and probably pair for life, since at whatever season one is found, its mate is
sure to be met with somewhere near. Their flight is extremely rapid, more so
than that of any other Himalayan pheasant, and when they dart down the side of
the mountains it requires an experienced shot to stop them. The nest is placed at
the root of a tzee, or under some overhanging tuft of grass, and contains from five
to nine eggs, resembling those of the monal in colour.

Before mentioning the true pheasants, it may be observed that
the well-known chir-pheasant (Catreus wallichi), from the middle
ranges of the Himalaya, alone represents an allied genus. Resembling in general
form and the shape of the tail the true pheasants, it lacks the bright metallic
plumage of those birds, while the wing is of the monal type, with the first primary
shorter than the tenth; the head being adorned with a full large crest, most
developed in the males. Inhabitants of low-lying wooded valleys, and including
about a couple of dozen of gorgeously-coloured species and varieties, the true
pheasants range from South-Eastern Europe across Central Asia to Japan and
Formosa. As already pointed out, the wing in all these birds is partridge-like, and
differs from the characteristic monal type, the first flight-feather being much longer
than the tenth; but, unlike the partridges, the tail is long and wedge-shaped—
much longer than the wing. The sides of the head are naked, and there is no
crest; but the ear-tufts are considerably lengthened in the male, and the legs are
armed with a pair of sharp spurs. The home of the common pheasant (Phasianus
colchicus) is South-Eastern Europe and Asia Minor, although the bird has for many
centuries been established in Great Britain and various parts of the Continent to
the west of its original habitat. The male has the top of the head bronze-green,
and the rest of the head and neck dark green, shading into purple on the sides and
front of the latter; the mantle, chest, breast, and flanks are fiery orange-red with
a purplish green margin to each feather; the middle of the back and scapulars
mottled and beautifully patterned with buff, black, and orange-red ; the lower back
and tail-coverts red, glossed with purplish lake ; and the wing-coverts sandy brown.
The middle of the breast and sides of the under-parts are glossed with dark purplish
green, the rest of the under-parts being brown mixed with rufous; the tail-feathers
are light olive-green, the middle pair being barred along the middle with black ;
the naked skin on the sides of the face is scarlet-vermilion ; and the legs and feet
are brownish horn colour. The female is mostly sandy brown, marked and barred
with black and buff, shading into chestnut on the mantle and sides of the breast.

The majority of the species allied to the common pheasant may be divided
into two groups, namely, those inhabiting that part of Central Asia west of the
meridian of Calcutta, which have the rump and upper tail-coverts maroon or rufous,
sometimes glossed with green; while in all the forms found to the eastward of that
line these parts are greenish or bluish slate-colour. In the most westerly forms of
the first group, such as the common pheasant and the nearly-allied Persian pheasant
(P. persicus), which differs in having the wing-coverts white, and inhabits the
valleys to the south-east of the Caspian, there is no white ring on the neck, but
as we go eastwards we find other species, such as Severtzow’s pheasant (P.

True Pheasants.

426 GAME-BIRDS.

chrysomelas), from the Amu-Daria, and Shaw’s pheasant, from Yarkand and
Kashgar, in which the white ring, though absent in the typical examples, is in
many individuals distinct or represented by a few white feathers. Farther north
along the valley of the Sir Daria and ranging east through Turkestan to the valley
of the Black I:tish, we find the Mongolian pheasant (P. mongolicus), and still
farther eastward, in Dzungaria, the allied P. semitorquatus, in both of which a

A BOUQUET OF COMMON PHEASANTS (} nat. size),

wide and nearly complete white collar is present. In the eastern forms with the
slate-coloured rump a very similar arrangement occurs, the western and more
southern species having little or no trace of a white ring; but in the Chinese
pheasant (figured on p. 407), ranging from the Amur, Mantchuria, and Eastern
Mongolia, through Eastern China, and its ally, P. satschewnensis, from the north of
the Nan-Shan Mountains, as well as in the Formosan pheasant (P. formosanus), the
white ring is well developed. It will thus be seen that the more northern species
of both the rufous and grey-rumped groups have a white collar, while in the more

PHEASANTS. 427

southern species of both this is absent, or at best ill-defined. Since it cannot be
considered that the individuals with traces of the collar found among the southern
species are the results of interbreeding with the northern ringed species, when their
ranges are separated by chains of mountains, we must conclude that the original
stock were probably of northern origin, and, like those still inhabiting the higher
latitudes, possessed a white ring; that as the species spread gradually southwards
this characteristic, from some cause or other, has been lost, but that numerous
individuals still show traces of a reversion to the ancestral type. Of the aberrant
species we may note the Japanese pheasant (P. versicolor), with the under-parts
uniform metallic green, Elliot’s pheasant (P. elliot’), from the mountains of South-
East China, and Hume’s pheasant (P. hwmec), from Upper Burma and the Shan
Hills. In the two latter the lower back is black barred with white, and there are
only sixteen instead of the normal eighteen tail-feathers. Still more different are
Soemmerring’s pheasant (P. soemmerring?), from Japan, which has the plumage
chestnut shot with purplish carmine and fiery gold, and Reeves’ pheasant (P. reevest),
from North China, with its white crown, black collar, tawny plumage, and a tail
fully 5 feet in length in the oldest males. All the members of the genus are
polygamous, each cock pairing with several hens.
Goldenand Undoubtedly the most gorgeously adorned members of the whole
Amherst's pheasant family are found in the genus which includes the golden
Pheasants. and Amherst’s pheasants (Chrysolophus pictus and O. amherstic), of
the mountains of Eastern Tibet and Western and Southern China. The characters
distinguishing the males are the long, full crest of hairy feathers and the cape-like
mass of feathers covering the back of the head and neck, as well as the long tail
and its greatly lengthened upper-coverts. The male of the species figured, although
possessing fewer brilliant colours than the golden pheasant, has the colours purer
and more harmonious. ‘The top of the head, mantle, scapulars, and chest are dark
bronze-green ; the long crest blood-red; the feathers forming the cape pure white,
margined and barred across the middle with black glossed with steel-blue ; the lower
back and rump widely tipped with yellowish buff barred with dark green; and the
long upper tail-coverts white, irregularly barred with black and widely tipped
with orange-scarlet. The wings and under tail-coverts are mostly black, with dark
purplish green reflections ; the long middle tail-feathers with arched bars and wavy
lines of black ; the throat and fore part of the neck brownish black, slightly glossed
with green; and the rest of the under-parts pure white, barred on the flanks with
black. Unlike the golden pheasant, both sexes have a patch of naked blue skin
surrounding the eye; but the female has none of the brilliant plumage of the male,
the general colour of the upper-parts being rufous and buff, marked and barred,
especiaily on the wings and middle tail-feathers, with dark brown; the outer tail-
feathers being chestnut mixed with black and barred and tipped with white, and
the breast and under-parts mostly pale buff, barred on the breast and sides with
dark brown. This species has been imported from Western China and Eastern
Tibet to Europe, where, being of a hardy nature, it thrives in aviaries.
Gist ch The game-fowls inhabit the Jungles of the Indo-Malayan
countries and many of the adjacent islands; the males differing

from the other birds of this group in having a high fleshy comb extending along

428 GAME-BIRDS.

the middle of the head from the base of the bill, and the sides of the face, chin, and
throat naked, and provided with one or two more wattles. The red jungle-fowl
(Gallus banciva), with its serrated comb and double-wattled throat, closely
resembles its domestic descendant the game-cock in the colours of its plumage,
and is a common denizen of the well-watered jungle-country of the lower ranges
of the Himalaya, from Kashmir to Assam, and parts of Central India, especially in

COCK AND HEN OF AMHERST’S PHEASANT (2 nat. size).

the vicinity of scattered cultivation. It is also found throughout the Malay
Peninsula and eastwards to Cochin-China, Sumatra, Java, and the Philippines.
When running or feeding, jungle-fowl droop the tail, but when challenging their
rivals, or paying their addresses to their mates, they carry it erect like the
domestic cock. Of all their kind, these birds, even in a wild state, are the most
pugnacious, the males often fighting till one or other of the combatants is killed.
Besides the above, several other species are known, such as the Ceylon
(G. lafayetti), the grey jungle-fowl (G. sonnerati), from India, which produces the

PHEASANTS. 429

hackles so much in request for making salmon-flies, and the green jungle-fowl
(G. varius), of Java, Lombok, and Flores, distinguished by having an entire
upper margin to the comb, and only a single wattle on the throat.

Peacock: The peacock-pheasants present a different type, with their large,

Pheasants. full, and rounded tails ornamented with metallic eye-like spots; the
sides of the face being naked, or nearly so, and the legs of the males armed with
two, and sometimes three pairs of spurs. Having a distribution very similar to
that of the jungle-fowl, they only extend into India as far east as Darjiling, and
inhabit the dense hill-forests ranging from a little above the sea-level to an
elevation of some six thousand feet. The grey peacock-pheasant (Polyplectrum
chinquis) of the Indo-Burmese countries, is a remarkably handsome bird, the male
having the general colour of the upper-parts brown dotted all over with dirty
white, and each of the feathers of the mantle and wings ornamented with a large,
round, dark green eye-spot, showing violet, purple, and blue reflections, and edged
with successive rings of black, brown, and dirty white; the upper tail-coverts and
tail-feathers being similarly ornamented with pairs of oval spots, situated on each
side of the shaft at some distance from the extremity, and wholly green in one
light and purple in the other. The throat is thinly covered with white feathers,
and the rest of the under-parts are brown with irregular, mottled, and dotted bars
of dirty white; the naked skin on the sides of the face being pale fleshy yellow.
The female is darker, and has the eye-spot on the back and wings represented by
black spots slightly glossed with purple, while those of the tail are only present
on the outer feathers and are much reduced in size. Mr. Clarke, writing of this
species, says, it “is common in the north-east of Cachar, where it is found in
dense bamboo-jungle, on the sides of ravines, and on the tops of the low ranges of
hills, wherever there are jamum trees, as well as on the banks of the river Barak,
wherever it is well wooded. On the rocky faces of the Barak banks there is a
tree which, during the rainy season, is partially submerged, but in cold weather
bears a fruit with seeds like those of a chilli, On these the birds feed greedily
in the early morning and towards sunset ; insects and worms, with this fruit, form
their chief food, but I have on one occasion found small land-shells and pebbles in
the stomach of an adult male.”

Among the most singular representatives of the family are the
argus-pheasants, distinguished by their large size, enormously
developed and eyed secondary quills, which far exceed the outer flight-feathers in
length, and their extremely long middle tail-feathers. The shape of the wing
is specially remarkable, and may be regarded as representing the extreme type of
monal wing; the first flight-feather being the shortest, and the tenth the longest,
or exactly the reverse of what obtains in the quails and snow-partridge. The
common argus (Argusianus giganteus) is met with in the forests of Siam,
Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra, while in Borneo the smaller, Gray’s
argus (A. grayi), takes its place. The male of the true argus has the naked skin
of the sides of the head, throat, and fore-part of the neck dark blue; the feathers
on the crown and the short crest black; the upper-parts beautifully chequered,
mottled, or spotted with black and buff; the chest rufous barred with black ; and the
rest of the under-parts black with wavy bars of chestnut and buff The primary

Argus-Pheasants.

430 GAME-BIRDS.

feathers are ornamented on the outer webs with closely approximated rows of
black and rufous spots, while on the basal part of the inner web there is a rufous

eae |

Mit Wi

\wth M47,
\ \ f!
\\\\\! yy Y ff

Nii

nh
Ween

ARGUS PHEASANT DISPLAYING,

su Ul

band minutely dotted with white and margined by a yellow black-barred line.
The outer webs of the enormous secondary quills are adorned with a series of large
eye-like spots, partly white, yellow, and rufous, and surrounded by a black ring.

PHEASANTS. 431

In total length the bird measures 6 feet from the bill to the end of the tail.
The female has the general coloration of the male, but lacks the beautiful
ornamental marking, as well as the enormously developed secondaries and middle
tail-feathers. Davison writes that these pheasants are quite solitary, every male
having “his own ‘drawing-room, of which he is excessively proud, and which
he keeps scrupulously clean. They haunt exclusively the depths of the ever-green
forests, and each male chooses some open level spot—sometimes down in a dark,
gloomy ravine, entirely surrounded and shut in by dense cane-brakes and rank
vegetation—sometimes on the top of a hill where the jungle is comparatively
open—from which he clears all the dead leaves and weeds for a space of six or
eight yards square until nothing but the bare clean earth remains, and thereafter
he keeps this place scrupulously clean, removing carefully every dead leaf or twig
that may happen to fall on it from the trees above. These cleared spaces
are undoubtedly used as dancing-grounds, but personally I have never seen
a bird dancing in them, but have always found the proprietor either seated
quietly in, or moving backwards and forwards slowly about them, calling at
short intervals, except in the morning and evening, when they roam about
to feed and drink. The males are always to be found at home, and roost on some
tree close by.”

Reinhard’s _ Another allied pheasant is Reinhard’s argus (Reinhardius

Argus. ocellatus), from the mountains in the interior of Tonkin, in which
the secondary quills are not longer than the primaries, though in the male the
middle pair of tail-feathers are enormously lengthened, wide at the base, and
tapering to the extremity. The male measures about 7 feet, from the bill to the
end of the tail.

The gorgeously coloured pea-fowl differ from all the birds
already noticed in having the upper tail-coverts developed into a
long train far exceeding the tail in length. The common species (Pavo cristatus),
of India, Assam, and Ceylon is too familiar to require description, but in the
Indo-Chinese countries, ranging in the north from Chittagong, westwards through
Siam to Cochin-China, and south through the Malay Peninsula to Java and
possibly Sumatra, there occurs the Burmese pea-fowl (P. muticus), the male
of which is distinguished by having the crest-feathers more elongate and equally
webbed on each side of the shafts, while the wing-coverts and scapulars are black.
Widely, though locally, distributed over the whole of India, the common species
prefers broken and jungly ground in the neighbourhood of water and cultivation,
but does not, asa rule, range to an elevation of more than four thousand feet,
though it has been obtained as high as six thousand. In India the Hindus regard
the pea-fowl with a superstitious reverence, and object to their being shot ; and in
native Hindu States, the prohibition being absolute, they are unmolested either by
Kuropeans or natives. A variety of the pea-fowl has the whole of the wing-

Pea-Fowl.

coverts, scapulars, and secondaries brownish black, glossed with purple and edged
with green, and the thighs black instead of buff It closely resembles hybrids
between the two species already mentioned, but arises independently in flocks of
the common pea-fowl which have been pure bred for years. Possibly it may be
a case of reversion to the ancestral type, being unknown in a wild state.

432 GAME-BIRDS.

T :
? urninge to
Guinea-Fowls. 5

Africa we come
to the various species of
guinea-fowl, representing
the pheasant tribe in that
continent, but having the
plumage of both sexes alike.
Before passing to the better-
known genera, we may
briefly notice two rare West.
African forms of which
very little is known. Of
these the black guinea-fowl
(Phasidus niger), occurring
between Cape Lopez and
Loango, is smaller than the
common guinea-fowl, and
has the whole of the plumage
blackish brown, obscurely
pencilled with brown. With
the exception of a band of
black feathers, from the base
of the bill to the occiput,
the head and neck are almost
entirely naked, the skin

being yellow shading into
orange on the throat and
- neck, and the male having
the metatarsus armed with
a pair of stout spurs, there-
by showing an approach to
*- the pheasants. The turkey
- guinea-fowl (Agelastes melea-
grides), met with further
north, from Liberia to the
Gabun, may be recognised by
having the whole head and
neck naked, the skin of the

bic

former being red, darker on
the crown and_ hind-neck,
while the lower-neck is

milky white ; the mantle and
chest being white, and the
rest of the plumage black
finely mottled with white.
Like the last species the male

PEACOCK (4 nat. size).

GUINEA-FOWLS. 433

has a pair of short stout spurs. The true guinea-fowls, including six species with
naked heads covered on the top with a more or less elevated bony helmet, a
pair of wattles at the angles of the gape, and black, white-spotted plumage, are
found all over Africa, except the more northern parts, as well as Madagascar.
The common species (Vumida meleagris) is also a native of West Africa,
ranging from Senegambia to the Gabun, and may be distinguished by having

CRESTED AND COMMON GUINEA-FOWLS (4 nat. size).

a wide vinous grey collar covering the upper-part of the mantle and chest. The
bare skin on the sides of the face, neck, and chin, as well as the wattles
are red, and the rest of the neck bluish. It is shown in the right-hand figure of
the accompanying woodcut. Like the rest of its kind it is gregarious, often collect-
ing in large flocks, particularly on the grass covered plains bordering the forest.
It is shy and difficult to approach, always preferring to escape by running, in
which respect it has few equals. The Abyssinian guinea-fowl (NV. ptilorhyncha),
which extends into Equatorial Africa, is peculiar in having a bunch of horny
VOL. IV.—28

434 GAME-BIRDS.

bristles at the base of the upper mandible. The left-hand figure of our illustration
on p. 433 represents the crested guinea-fowl (Guttera cristata), one of four species
belonging to a group characterised by having a well-developed crest of black feathers,
the general colour of the plumage being black spotted with pale blue, and the first
four or five secondary quills margined with white, thus producing a white band
along the wing
when closed. The
present species is
further character-
ised by the uniform
black collar cover-
ing the upper part
of the chest, and
by the naked skin
of the head and
neck being cobalt-
blue, except on the
chin and_ throat,
which are red.
This is another
West African form,
ranging from
Sierra Leone to
WAS the Gold Coast, its
i \ habits being very

rey
bu
Hl
i!

similar to those
of the common
euinea-fowl. Al-
lied forms of both
these genera are
found in both
Southern and
Eastern Africa, but
need no special
mention.

NY,

MIWA. CRAG. HY vutturetike The
VULTURE-LIKE GUINEA-FOWL PERCHING, SIRBERDSL vu 1-

(From Sclater, List of Animals in Zoological Gardens.) . ture-like guinea-

fowl (Aeryllium

vulturinum) is a native of Eastern Africa, possibly ranging into West Africa.
The head and upper half of the neck are naked, and covered with cobalt-blue skin,
with the exception of a horse-shoe-shaped band of velvety reddish brown feathers
round the nape. The feathers of the neck, chest and mantle are developed into long
black pointed hackles, with white shaft-stripes and cobalt margins; the rest of the
upper-parts being black, minutely dotted all over with white, and covered with
small round black-edged spots; the sides and flanks are also similarly marked, but

TURKEYS. 435

are washed with purple, and the breast and under-parts are cobalt-blue, but black
down the middle. The tail-feathers resemble the upper-parts in their markings,
but the middle pair are much elongated and pointed. The male is similar to
the female, but larger, and with four or five wart-like knobs on each leg.

The last group of the family is a somewhat aberrant one, com-
prising the turkeys, all of which are natives of North and Central
America, where three distinet
species and two local races are
known. ‘The common turkey
(Meleagris gallopavo) comes
from the table-lands of
Northern Mexico and_ the
neighbouring States, and is
recognised by the broad white
tips to the upper tail-coverts
and tail; while in the species
(M. americana) of the Eastern
States these parts are dark
chestnut. The handsomest
member of the groupis, however,
theocellated turkey(JZ ocellata)
of Guatemala, Yucatan, and
British Honduras, each of the
tail-feathers being ornamented
with a greenish blue eye-spot
shot with purple, while the
metallic parts of the body-
feathers are golden or bronze-
COMMON TURKEY. green, and the naked head and

Turkeys.

nee GAME-BIRDS.

neck blue covered with red warts. Like its allies, the common turkey is
polygamous, the female only attending to the duties of incubation, while the male,
in addition to neglecting such labours, is even reported to destroy the eggs and
young chicks. Mr. Brown, writing of these turkeys, observes, that “I am of the
belief that they raise two broods of young im a season, as I have seen almost all
sizes in the masting-season (October), when they congregate in large numbers in
the cations to feed on a small bitter acorn, common to the canons and parks of
Southern Arizona and southward. I have seen their roosting-places at night, in
sycamore trees; I also saw one in an oak-grove on the side of a hill, but they
appear more to favour the eafions.”
nateriten Distinguished from their Old World allies by the tooth-like
Partridges processes on the edge of the lower mandible, these birds constitute a
and Quails. separate subfamily (Odontophorine),represented by eleven genera,con-
Ee taining nearly fifty species; the
-/ | largest form being about the size

of the common partridge, while

the smallest is inferior in size to
the migratory quail. In _ the
majority of this group the bill is
stout and grouse-like, and most
have a longer or shorter crest.
Of the three large partridges
(Dendrortyx) inhabiting Central
America, from Southern Mexico
to Costa Rica, little need be said.
They are rather handsome birds
(especially D. macrurus), with
tails as long as the wing, or
nearly so. The scaled partridges
(Callipepla) are easily recognised
by their short crests, and grey
and black-margined plumage,
producing a beautiful scaled ap-
pearance. They are met with in
the south-western United States
and Mexico. Specially attrac-
tive is the mountain-partridge
(Oreortyx pictus) from the West-
ern States of North America, with
the crest composed of two very
long black feathers; the head,
neck, mantle, and breast bemg
grey ; the rest of the upper-parts
olive-brown; the throat and fore-part of the neck deep chestnut margined with white ;
and the sides and flanks similarly coloured, but irregularly barred with black and
white. One of the handsomest and most familiar members of the group is the

CALIFORNIAN QUAIL.

MEGAPODES AND BRUSH-TURKEYS. 437

Californian quail (Lophortyx californicus), often seen in aviaries, and at once
distinguished by its conspicuous crest of black club-shaped feathers. In the cock
the forehead is buff, the rest of the head and the throat black, edged with a white
band; the neck, mantle, and chest being grey, and having each feather margined
with black and spotted with white; while the rest of the upper-parts are greyish
olive-brown, and the under-parts buff, barred with black and shading into
chestnut. The female has the crest shorter and browner, and the feathers of the
head and neck are mostly dirty white, with dark middles. This bird, which
inhabits the extreme western
States, from Washington to
California, ranging inland to
Nevada, has been introduced
into various parts of the
world. <A rather peculiar form
is the South Mexican barred
quail (Philortyx fasciatus)
which has the greater part of
both upper and under -parts
barred. Central and Northern
South America are the home
of the seven species of crested
quails (Hupsychortyx), differ-
ing from all those mentioned
in having the tail shorter, as

BLACK-THROATED CRESTED QUAIL. well as in their smaller size.

Closely allied, but lacking the

crest, is the genus Ortyx, including such well-known forms as the Virginian quail

(0. virginianus), or “ Bob-white,” as it is called in the States, and several other

species, with the greater portion of the under-parts uniform chestnut or brick-

red, and inhabiting the South-Western States and Mexico. Three striking and

peculiarly marked species of quail constitute Cyrtonyx, inhabiting the south-

western United States, Mexico, and Central America; the males being distinguished
by their full crest, black-and-white patterned head, and eyed under-parts.

MEGAPODES AND BrusH-TURKEYS.
Family MEGAPODIID.

We now come to the second section of the order, containing
two families characterised by having the first toe on the same
level as the others. The members of the present family are chiefly remarkable
on account of their nesting-habits, their eggs being deposited in the sand or ina
mound raised by one or more pairs of birds, and incubated by the heat caused
by the fermentation of the decaying vegetable matter and the warmth of the sun.
The young are hatched fully feathered, and able to fly almost from birth. The
legs and feet of all these birds are remarkably strong and stout, and thus well

Megapodes,

438 GAME-BIRDS.

suited for scratching up the earth and preparing their nesting-mounds. The true
megapodes include fifteen different species, widely scattered over the islands of the
Pacific and Australia, one (Megapodius cumming) ranging to the Philippines,
another (J/. laperousii) being found in the Ladrone and Pelew Islands, while an
isolated western form occurs in the Nicobars. The plumage is remarkably sombre,
being generally olive-brown or rufous above and grey beneath. The Nicobar
megapode (I. nicobariensis) during the day frequents the dense jungle near
the coast, and may be met with in pairs or in flocks of thirty or more. It
is a difficult bird to flush, usually preferring to escape by running. The nest-
ing-mounds are generally placed near the shore, and average about 5 feet in height —
and 30 in circumference. Davison met with one “which must have been at
least 8 feet high and quite 60 feet in circumference. It was apparently a very
old one, for from near its centre grew a tree about 6 inches in diameter, whose
roots penetrated the mound in all directions to within a foot of its summit,
some of them being nearly as thick as a man’s wrist. I had this mound dug away
almost to the level of the surrounding land, but only got three eggs from it, one
quite fresh, and two in which the chicks were somewhat developed. Off this
mound I shot a megapode, which had evidently only just laid an ego. I
dissected it, and from a careful examination it would seem that the eggs are laid
at long intervals apart, for the largest egg in the ovary was only about the size
of a large pea, and the next in size about as big as a small pea. These mounds
are also used by reptiles, for out of one I dug, besides the megapode’s eggs, about
a dozen eggs of some large lizard. I made inquiries among the natives about
these birds, and from them I learnt that they usually get four or five eggs from
a mound, but sometimes they get as many as ten; they all assert that only one
pair of birds are concerned in the making of a mound, and that they only work
at night. When newly made, the mounds (so I was informed) are small, but are
gradually enlarged by the birds.”

An exceptionally marked species, Wallace’s megapode (Hulipoa wallacez), from
Gilolo and some of the islands to the west of New Guinea, is characterised by
having the secondary flight-feathers much shorter than the primaries, and the
feathers of the middle of the back and most of the wing-coverts barred with bright
chestnut. Still larger is the ocellated megapode (Lipoa ocellata) of Southern and
Western Australia, distinguished by having the upper tail-coverts reaching to the
end of the tail, and the plumage of the upper-parts mostly grey barred with black.

The brush-turkeys (Yalegallus) include three or four species of
large, dark-coloured birds, with stout bills, oval nostrils, and the head,
throat, and front of the neck thinly covered with small scattered feathers; the
genus being confined to New Guinea and some of the adjacent islands. The
Australian brush-turkey (Cathetwruslathami),shown in the woodcut, differs in having
a large wattle at the base of the neck, the nostrils round, and the tail much longer.
In both sexes the general colour of the upper-parts is dark brownish black, paler
on the lower back and rump, the under-parts being dark brownish grey, broadly
edged with white, the naked skin of the head and neck pinky red, and the wattle
bright yellow. Gould observes that “at the commencement of spring the wattled
talegallus scratches together an immense heap of decaying vegetable matter as a

Brush-Turkeys.

BRUSH-TURKEYS. 439

depository for the eggs, and trusts to the heat engendered by the process of
fermentation for the development of the young. The heap employed for this
fo)
purpose is collected by the birds during several weeks previous to the period of
laying; it varies in‘size from two to many cartloads, and in most instances is of a
Ay Oo? ?

AUSTRALIAN BRUSH-TURKEYS (1 nat. size).

pyramidal form. .. The materials composing these mounds are accumulated by
the bird grasping a quantity in its foot and throwing it backwards to a common
centre, the surface of the ground for a considerable distance being so completely
scratched over that scarcely a leaf or a blade of grass is left. The eggs are

440 GAME-BIRDS.

deposited in a circle at the distance of 9 or 12 inches from each other, and buried
more than an arm’s-depth with the large end upwards.”

Another genus (4/pypodius) from New Guinea and Waigiou, is characterised
by a fleshy crest running from the base of the bill to the crown, a pendulous wattle
at the base of the fore-neck, and the chestnut upper tail-coverts.

The last genus of the family contains only the maleo (Mega-
cephalum maleo), of North Celebes and the Sanghir Islands, which is
the most remarkable of the group, both in its structure and habits. In both sexes

Maleo.

AK NAN ‘

CELEBEAN MALEO (+ nat. size),

the head is naked, the crown being covered with a large black casque; while the
plumage of the upper-parts, chest, flanks, thighs, and under tail-coverts is dark
brown, and that of the breast and belly beautiful salmon-pink. These birds do
not raise mounds in which to lay their eggs, but deposit the latter in holes dug in
the sand. Mr. Wallace describes one of their laying-grounds as follows :—* The
place is situated in the large bay between the islands of Limbé and Banca, and
consists of a steep beach more than a mile in length of deep, loose, and coarse black
volcanic sand, or rather gravel—very fatiguing to walk over... It is in this
loose, hot, black sand, that those singular birds the ‘maleos, deposit their eggs.
In the months of August and September when there is little or no rain, they come
down in pairs from the interior to this, or to one or two other favourite spots, and

CURASSOWS AND GUANS. 441

scratch holes three or four feet deep, just above high-water mark, where the
female deposits a single large egg, which she covers over with about a foot of sand,
and then returns to the forest. At the end of ten or twelve days she comes again
to the same spot to lay another egg, and each female bird is supposed to lay
six or eight eggs during the season. The male assists the female in making the
hole, coming down and returning with her. The appearance of the bird, when
walking on the beach, is very handsome. They run quickly, but when shot at,
or suddenly disturbed, take wing with a heavy, noisy flight, to some neighbouring
tree, where they settle on a low branch, and they probably rest at night in a
similar situation. Many birds lay in the same hole, for a dozen eggs are often
found together, and these are so large that it is not possible for the body of the
bird to contain more than one fully-developed egg at the same time. In all the
female birds which I shot, none of the eggs besides the large one exceeded the size
of peas, and there were only eight or nine of these which is probably the extreme
number a bird can lay in one season.”

THE CURASSOWS AND GUANS.
Family OCRACIDA,.

The second family of the game-birds with the first toe on the same level as the
others contains a number of large Central and South American birds, some of which,
such as the curassows, are nearly as large as turkeys, while others, like certain
guans of the genus Ortalis, are considerably smaller than the common pheasant.
All the species have a long and well-developed tail, and in the males the windpipe
is long and convoluted, and, as one would expect, their cry is very loud and harsh.
They differ from the megapodes, not only in their osteological structure, but also
in having a tuft of feathers on the oil-gland. Moreover, their nesting-habits are
different ; the eggs being incubated by the parent in the ordinary manner; though
some of the species habitually nest in trees, and lay white eggs. When first hatched,
the young are covered with a patterned down, like the chicks of other game-birds.
These birds are arboreal in their habits, the greater part of their time being spent
among the highest forest trees. The different genera may be conveniently grouped
into two sections, the first four having the upper mandible higher than broad,
while in the remaining seven it is broader than high. The true
curassows differ from the allied forms in their large size, and also by
having the feathers on the top of the head semi-erect and curled at the extremities;
in the males the crest being uniformly black, while in the females it is more or less
barred with white. The males are all much alike, the whole plumage being black
glossed with purple or dark green, except on the under-parts, flanks, and under
tail-coverts, which are white; in two species the tail-feathers being also tipped
with the same colour. The plumage of the females, on the other hand, varies much

Curassows.

in the different species, in the crested curassow closely resembling that of the
male, while in the remainder the upper-parts are variously barred with black, white,
rufous, and buff. It will thus be apparent that the distinctive specific characters
are, as a rule, much more marked in the females than in the males. The crested

442 GAME-BIRDS.

curassow (Crax alector) has the plumage of both sexes very similar, but the female,
shown in the foreground of the cut, has the crest barred with white. This bird 1S.
a native of the forests of British Guiana and Northern Brazil, extending into

Colombia. Distinguished by the purple gloss on the upper-parts, and the absence
of a swollen knob at the base of the upper, and of a wattle on the base of the

Mi
Hf i

CRESTED CURASSOWS (4 nat. size).

lower mandible of the male, it has the cere and base of the bill yellow, and the

extremity horny blue, while the legs and feet are horn-coloured. Being easily
tamed, and affording excellent food, these birds are often domesticated.

ares, Passing over the smaller rufous coloured urumutu (Vothocrax

urumutum), from British Guiana and the Upper Amazons, distin-

guished by its crest of recumbent feathers, and the naked space in front of the eye,

we come to the three species of mituas, which are as large as the curassows, with

CURASSOWS AND GUANS. 443

the greater part of the plumage black in both sexes. In two species the under-
parts and under tail-coverts are chestnut, the first having the tail-feathers tipped
with white and the second with chestnut, while in the third all these parts are
white. All three may be distinguished from the curassows by their elevated and
vaulted upper mandible and the want of curling of the crest-feathers.

The last genus contains only the curious pauxi curassow
(Pauxis pauaxi) of the north-western parts of South America,
remarkable for the large, fig-shaped blue casque on the forehead. The male has
the entire plumage black, except the under- parts, under tail-coverts, and the
tips of the tail-feathers, which are white; in the female the back, wings, and breast
being chestnut, paler on the flanks, and barred and mottled with black.

To the second group, with the width of the bill at the base
greater than the height, belongs the rare Derbian guan (Oreophasis
derbianus), from the wooded
slopes of the Volean de Fuego
in Guatemala. The characteristic
features of this bird are the
elevated, straight, deep scarlet
horn on the top of the head
between the eyes, and the densely
feathered base of the upper
mandible. In both sexes the

Pauxi Curassow.

Derbian Guan,

general colour of the head and
upper-parts is black glossed with
dark green, the base of the throat
being almost naked, the front of
the neck and breast white shad-
ing into buff on the sides, with
dark shaft-stripes to the feathers,
and the remainder of the under-
parts brownish black, while there is a wide white band across the middle of the tail.

A more numerous group is that of the guans (Penelope), in-
cluding fifteen species from Central and South America. In all these
the chin and throat are generally naked, with a wattle, and there is a large naked
space surrounding the eye. An allied form (Penelopina nigra), with the plumage
of the sexes different, occurs in the highlands of Guatemala, the male being entirely
black, glossed with green, and the female rufous above barred with black, and
beneath sandy mottled with dark brown. The habits of all these birds appear to
be very similar; during the breeding-season they are only found in pairs, while at
other times they congregate in large flocks, always frequenting the forest, and
passing the greater part of their time in the largest trees, when not engaged in
searching for fallen fruits and insects. In the next genus (Ortalis), including
seventeen Central and South American forms, the throat is naked as in the two
last, but there is a thin band of stiff-shafted feathers down the middle. The only
member of the family which enters North America is the chachalaca (0. vetula),
which has a wide range, extending from Southern Texas through Eastern Mexico

DERBIAN GUAN.

Guans.

444 GAME-BIRDS.

and Central America to Colombia; and, as might be expected, the bird varies some-
what in the different parts of its range. The aburria (Aburria aburrv) includes
but a single species found in the United States of Colombia and Ecuador, and may
be at once recognised by its black plumage glossed with dark green, and the worm-
like wattle situated on the naked part of the fore-neck. Finally, there are two
species with the chin, throat, and fore-part of the neck covered with feathers com-
prising the last genus (Chamapetes).

THE HOATZIN.
Family OPISTHOCOMID.

The very remarkable pheasant-like. bird from the northern and western
districts of South America, known as the hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoatzin), appears
on the whole to be most nearly allied to the game-birds, and may therefore be
mentioned here. Many ornithologists regard it, indeed, as representing a distinct
order, but as the Editor does not see the advantage of unnecessarily multiplying
ordinal terms, it is alluded to here merely as forming a family. On examining the
skeleton of this bird, which has many striking peculiarities, the observer will be
struck by the form of the breast-bone, with its nearly parallel lateral edges and
feebly developed keel, of which the anterior part is cut away, and the posterior
portion broad and flattened out. On this flattened surface the greater part of
the weight of the body is supported when the bird is at rest. Another striking
feature is the shoulder-girdle, the bones of which are completely welded to one
another as well as to the breast-bone. The crop is enormous, and occupies the
upper portion of the chest, being placed in a deep cavity in the pectoral muscles.
The nest of these birds, which is built of sticks and placed in bushes near the
water's edge, contains two or three, and sometimes as many as five oval-shaped
eggs of a white colour, doubly spotted with rufous and purple, and remarkably
rail-like in character. Unusual interest attaches to the young, which are hatched
naked, with the thumb and index-finger provided with well-developed claws, en-
abling them to climb about among the branches soon after they are hatched; the
bill, as well as the legs and wings, being used for holding on to the twigs. Moreover,
when compelled, they are able to swim and dive with equal facility. The hoatzin
spends its existence among the branches, consuming enormous quantities of leaves,
and in spite of its large wings, possesses only the most limited powers of flight.

THE BUSTARD-QUAILS or HEMIPODES.
Family TURNICID.

The little bustard-quails, usually included among the game-birds, and associated
with the quails, are, however, so extremely distinct that they are frequently regarded
as forming an order equal in importance though not in numbers to the Galline.
While in some respects they approach both the pigeons and game-birds, their
affinities with the rails are undoubted, and we prefer, therefore, to leave their serial

RAIL-TRIBE. 445

position open. Like the sand-grouse and rails, they lay double-spotted eggs, quite
different from those laid by any of the true game-birds; but the young are similarly
covered with down, and able to run soon after they are hatched. Among the most
singular features of this group it may be noticed that the females are always
larger and more brightly coloured than the males; while the latter undertake all
the cares of meubating the eggs and tending the young. In the typical genus
(Turnix), which contains all the forms but one, the first toe is entirely absent, but
in the Australian collared hemipode (Pedionomus torquatus) a small first toe is
present. The twenty-one members of the typical genus are distributed over Africa,
Madagascar, and Arabia, and also range through the Indo-Malayan countries to
Australia; while one species, the Andalusian hemipode (7. sylvatica), inhabits
South Europe. No less than four of these species are found in India, and as their
habits have been more studied than elsewhere, we may take the Indian bustard-
quail (7. taigur) as typical of the group. This bird, besides being found all over
India, has a wide range throughout Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Siam, and South
China to Formosa and the Liu-kiu Islands. As might be expected, the plumage
of so widely-spread a species shows considerable climatic variation, examples from
the dry plains of India having the prevailing colour of the upper-parts rufous:
whereas in specimens from the Malay Peninsula, with its heavy rainfall, the general
tone is greyish brown. In both sexes the upper-parts are barred and marked with
black, many of the feathers being margined on the sides with whitish buff; while
the chest and breast are buff barred with black, and the under-parts rusty buff.
The female, besides being much larger, has the middle of the throat and chest deep
black, while in the male these parts are white with narrow black bars. Mr. Hume
writes that “scerub-jungle, intermixed with patches of moderately high grass on
dry ground, is perhaps its natural home ; but it may be met with anywhere in low
bush-jungle and on the skirts of forests, and in inhabited districts greatly affects
gardens, grass-preserves, and similar enclosures. It strays into stubbles and low
crops in the mornings and evenings, even remaining in these at times throughout
the day, but more generally retreating during the hotter noontide hours to the
cover of some thorny bush or patch of grass upon the margins.”

THE RAIL-TRIBE.
Order FULICARLE.

This distinct order includes but two families, namely the rails, to which the
great bulk of the species belong, and the fin-feet including only a few peculiar
forms with grebe-like feet, and no after-shafts to the contour-feathers. Agreeing
with the game-birds in the structure of their palate, these birds are most nearly
allied to the cranes on the one hand,—an intermediate type being found in the
American courlan, while they are also more distantly related through the hemi-
podes to the true game-birds. They probably represent one of the older and more
generalised types of birds. An interesting point is the large number of species
which, from disuse of their wings, have lost the power of flight, several of these
having become extinct within the memory of man; while with many others.

446 RAIL-TRIBE.

their extinction is but a matter of time. The chief characteristics of these birds
are their long legs, elongated toes, loose and rather hairy plumage, feeble, rounded
wings, and short tail. The body is generally narrow and laterally compressed,
enabling them to thread their way among the reeds and grasses with great ease
and rapidity; while the neck is long, and the head small, with a long or moderate
pill. A large number of genera, including nearly 180 species, comprise the family,
but space will only permit mention of some of the more important types.

MALE AND FEMALE CAROLINA RAILS.

The typical genus, including such well-known forms as the
common water-rail (Rallus aquaticus), is characterised by the beak
being longer than the third toe and claw, with the nostrils nearer the feathers at
the base than the anterior end of the nasal groove. In all the other genera
mentioned below the bill is shorter than the middle toe and claw. The clapper-
rail (R. longirostris) is a well-known North American form, with the general
colour above ashy grey streaked with blackish brown, the chin and throat white,
fore-neck ashy brown, shading into isabelline on the chest and upper-breast, and
into whitish on the under-parts, the flanks being barred with greyish brown and
white. This bird is a resident in many of the south-eastern United States, but
only met with in the salt-marshes near the Atlantic, unless driven in-shore by high

True Rails.

RAILS. 447

tides. In spring considerable migrations take place during the night, and are
always conducted in perfect silence. Audubon writes that “from about the
beginning of March to that of April, the salt-marshes resound with the eries of
the clapper-rail, which resemble the syllables cac, cac, cac, cac, cd, catra, catra.
The commencement of the ery, which is heard quite as frequently during day as
by night, is extremely loud and rapid, its termination lower and protracted. At
the report of a gun, when thousands of these birds instantaneously burst forth
with their cries, you may imagine what an uproar they make. At this period the
males are very pugnacious, and combats are rife till each has selected a female for
the season. The males stand erect and ery aloud at the least sound they hear, guard
their mates, and continue faithfully to protect them until the young make their
appearance.” ‘The nest is large and very deep, constructed of marsh-plants and
fastened to the stems in the midst of the thickest tufts above highwater mark.
This species may be called gregarious, the nests being placed on the most elevated
grass-tufts within a few yards of each other. Eight to fifteen eggs of a pale buff
colour, thinly spotted with light brown and purple, are laid, and, being delicious
eating, large numbers are collected for the market. This species can swim fairly
well, and can traverse the partially submerged weeds with great rapidity.”

The next group we have to notice are the curious weka rails
(Ocydromus), only found in New Zealand, and incapable of flight,
though provided with ample wings. They may be recognised by their rather
large size, nearly as big as the common pheasant, their bill shorter than the
middle toe and claw, and their elongate wing-coverts, which extend nearly to the
extremity of the quills, as well as by their stout, strong legs. A good account
of this bird is given by Sir W. Buller, who writes that it is seminocturnal in
its habits, and usually remains concealed during the day in thick fern or scrub,
taking refuge in a hollow log or other natural cavity. Occasionally it digs itself
a subterranean burrow, the bill only being employed for this purpose, which serves
as a retreat as well as a breeding-place. This bird is remarkably bold and fearless,
sometimes visiting the farmyards, and even entering houses. It is pugnacious
and perfectly omnivorous, being well known to plunder and eat the eggs and
young of ground-birds, and will, it is said, even attack a full-grown rat. The ery
commenced at sunset and continued through the night, is a peculiar and not
unpleasant whistle. A pair usually perform together, calling alternately and in
quick succession, the male always taking the lead. As already stated, these birds
usually breed in burrows, laying two and sometimes three eggs of the usual
ralline type.

Corncrake and The cornerake or land-rail (Crex pratensis), representing a genus

Carolina Rail. of its own, is found throughout the greater part of Europe and as far
east as the Yenisei in Siberia, ranging south in winter to Africa, while it is also
an occasional visitant to North America and Greenland. Nearly allied is the
Carolina rail (C. carolina), in which the general colour above is olivaceous
brown varied with black centres and white margins to the feathers; forehead,
crown, front of the face, and middle of the throat and neck black; the eyebrow-
stripes, sides of the face and neck, as well as the chest, ashy grey, the breast white,
and the flanks barred with black and white.

Weka Rails.

448 RAIL-TRIBE.

A very beautiful little group of pigmy rails inhabit Africa and
Madagascar, characterised by the soft tail-feathers, almost hidden by
the coverts. In the South African form (Corethrura rufa) the general colour of
the upper-parts, sides, and flanks is black, longitudinally streaked with white; the
inner-quills, lower-back, and tail being spotted with the same colour. The head,
neck, and chest are rich vinous chestnut, and the breast white streaked and barred
with black. Andersson, writing from Damaraland, says that “I have only found
this species at Oman-
bondé, where it is
not uncommon, and
breeds. It frequents
stagnant waters,
thickly fringed and
studded with aquatic

Pigmy Rails.

herbage, amongst the
ever-progressive de-
cay of which it loves
to disport itself and
to search for food.
It is very shy and
reserved in its habits,
seldom going far from
effective cover, and
gliding through the
mazes of the rank
vegetation with as-
tonishing ease and
swiftness.”
We
now come
to a group, including
the water-hens and
coots, which are char-
>. acterised by having a
~ frontal shield at the
base of the upper bill.
The South Australian
MORTIER’S WATER-HEN. (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1867.) Mortier’s water - hen
(Tribonyx mortierr),
shown in the accompanying woodcut, is the only representative of its genus, and may
be recognised by its short toes, which do not exceed the leg (metatarsus) in length,
its large size, and feeble wings, with the primary and secondary quills about equal
in length. The general colour of this bird is ruddy brown washed with olive,
shading into greenish grey on the wing-coverts, which are spotted with white; the
head and neck are dark olive-brown, and the rest of the under-parts greenish grey
washed with olive, with a large white patch on the sides of the body. Gould states

Water-Hens.

WATER-HEWNS. 44G

that “the localities it affects are marsh-lands and the sides of rivers. It was daily
seen by me on the Government demesne at New Norfolk, Tasmania, where it
frequently left its sedgy retreat, and walked about the paths and other parts of
the garden, with its tail erect like the common hen. Even here, however, the
greatest circumspection and quietude were necessary to obtain a sight of it; for
the slightest noise or movement excited its suspicions, and in an instant it vanished
in the most extraordinary manner into some thicket, from which it did not again
emerge until all apparent cause for alarm was past. Its habits and general manners
are very similar to those of the moor-hen, but it does not dive or swim so much as
that bird. It is very easily captured with a common horsehair noose. The nest,
which is very similar to that of the moor-hen, is formed of a bundle of rushes
placed on the border of the stream; eggs seven in number.” In the following
genera the toes are long, the third toe and claw exceeding the metatarsus in length.
Passing over the common water-hen (Gallinula) and its allies, in which the
toes, although not lobed lke
those of the coots, have a narrow
lateral membrane, and the nos-
trils are oval and situated in a
distinct nasal depression, we find
in South-Eastern Asia and the
adjacent islands a large species
known as the water-cock (Galli-
crex cinerea), distinguished by
having no lateral membrane on
the toes. The male has the
plumage black, the upper-parts
especially, the wing-coverts being
edged with grey, and the scapu-
lars and lower back with brown,
while the under tail-coverts are aoatitowr Goon,
buff barred with black. The
female is browner and has the wing-coverts grey, while the under-parts are
buff with dusky bars, except the throat and middle of the belly, which are
white.

Gallinules The most striking birds of this group, as regards brilliance of

and Coots. eolouring, are the purple gallinules (Porphyrio), with their handsome
blue and purple plumage, variously shaded with dark green, olive-brown, and black.
Closely allied to these is Mantell’s gallinule (Wotornis mantellc), a native of New
Zealand, now nearly, if not quite, extinct, and the white form (NV. alba), which
formerly inhabited Norfolk and Lord Howe Islands. Finally, we must mention
the coots (Fuliea), at once recognised by their lobed toes. In habits they resemble
both ducks and gallinules, being able not only to swim and dive well, but to thread
their way through grass and reeds with ease and swiftness. In rising they flap
along the surface of the water, and fly like rails with their legs dangling; and
their notes resemble those of the gallinules, but are more harsh and grating. The

distribution of the genus is cosmopolitan.
VOL. IV.—29

450 RAIL-TRIBE.

THE FINFEET.
Family HELIORNITHIDA,

As mentioned above, the birds representing this group are few in number, and
belong to three different genera, one being found in Africa, a second in Central and
South America, and the third in South-Eastern Asia and Sumatra. The Senegal
finfoot (Podica senegalensis) 1s, as its name implies, a native of West Africa. The
general colour above is dark brown glossed with dark green, the back and
wings being ornamented with round ochreous spots edged with black; the
sides of the face, neck, and throat are grey banded with white; and the rest —
of the under-parts white tinged with fulvous and barred with black on the sides.
Mr. Biittikofer observed these
birds on the Junk and Du
(Queah Rivers in Liberia, where
they were usually met with
solitary, more rarely in pairs,
slowly swimming about, and
very shy and watchful, making
for the bank at full speed on
the approach of a canoe, and
hiding themselves under the
thick foliage of the over-
hanging shrubs. They are
very hard to flush unless
taken by surprise in the open,
when they flutter hastily away,
keeping so close to the water
that they continually beat the
surface with their wings and feet. When swimming, they sit very deep in the
water, and are therefore not easily killed in that position, especially as it is
difficult to get within shot of them, and, unlike the rails, even when wounded,
they never attempt to escape by diving. Their general habits are much like those
of the common coot. Speaking of the closely allied Peter’s finfoot from South
Africa, Mr. Ayres says the birds he obtained were caught in traps set for otters.
“They have the power of making an extraordinary noise, like the growling of a
wild beast, which they do by drawing the air into their bodies, and foreing it
gradually from their throats.” Both birds made this strange noise when taken
from the traps, fighting at the same time with all their might. The young of
the American tinfoot (HI. fulica) are said to be hatched naked and carried about
by the old bird, but very little appears to be known at present of the nesting-
habits of any of these birds,

SENEGAL FINFOOT.

W. R. OGILVIE GRANT.

CHA Pai i Xevalell,

THe Bustarps, THICKNEES, AND CRANES,—
Order ALECTORIDES.

THE group known as Alectorides, under which were included in Mr. Sclater’s
classification the cranes, bustards, and certain other families, is one of those
ill-defined assemblages of birds which afford illimitable difference of opinion as to
the relations of their constituents. For instance, some ornithologists remove the
bustards from the group to place them with the rails, while others would associate
them with the Limicole. Others, again, would regard the rails (inclusive of the
bustards) and the cranes as the representatives of two main subdivisions of the
Alectorides. Moreover, but few accept the relationship of the thicknees to the
bustards; some writers placing them among the Limicole, while Mr. Seebohm
would include them in the Gaview. Admitting that the assemblage may be to some
extent an artificial one, we think that its retention, at least as a provisional
measure, is convenient—more especially as not only can it be defined, but that, in
its present form, it aids in the definition of the two succeeding groups.

All the Alectorides! agree with the game-birds and rails in having slit
(schizognathous) palates, and their young covered with down, and active almost
immediately after birth, as well as in the absence of a projecting (ectepicondylar)
process on the outer side of the lower end of the humerus. They are further
characterised by the truncation of the hinder end of the lower jaw; and by this
feature, as well as by the absence of any perforation of the extremity of the

1 Except the kagu.

452 BUSTARDS, THICKNEES, AND CRANES.

breast-bone by the bases of the metacoracoids, they are distinguished from the
game-birds. From the rails they may be distinguished by the circumstance that
when their nostrils are oval (holorhinal) either the number of toes is reduced to
three, or if four toes are present either the breast-bone has no notch, or the
oil-gland is naked; while from both the pigeons and sand-grouse they are separated
by the upper end of the humerus being of normal form; the condition in which
the young are born also forming a point of distinction between the former of those
two groups. Briefly, then, the Alectorides may be approximately defined as
including those schizognathous birds with active young, in which the humerus has
no process at the lower end, and the angle of the lower jaw is truncated; the
nostrils being either schizorhinal or holorhinal, but, when the latter, either the
number of the toes is reduced to three, or the sternum is entire, or the oil-gland
naked ; the upper end of the humerus being always of normal form. Such characters
may seem not only trivial, but in some cases difficult to understand, although,
when dealing with groups of such nearly allied birds, they are almost the only ones
available. Like the orders treated in the two preceding chapters, the members
of this group either have the toes free, or but partially connected by webs.

THE BustTAarpD TRIBE.
Family O7IDID#.

The stoutly built birds known as bustards and floricans agree with the rails
in having the nasal openings in the skull of an oval shape (holorhinal); but they
differ in having only three toes to each foot, and likewise in the absence of bare
tracts in the plumage of the sides of the neck, and of an oil-gland. In their
skeleton the breast-bone has two notches in its hinder border; and the fureula is
U-shaped. Externally they are characterised by the relatively short beak, in
which the oval nostrils are placed near the base, the stout and moderately long
legs, in which the metatarsus is shorter than the tibia, the long wings, and the
short tail; the number of primary quills being ten, and that of the tail-feathers
twelve. They undergo a complete moult in autumn, and often a partial one in
spring; and the plumage of the two sexes may be nearly similar, or considerably
different. The bustards are confined to the Old World, where they are represented
by between thirty and forty species, of which a considerable proportion are natives
of Africa south of the Sahara. Essentially terrestrial birds, and chiefly in-
habitants of open plains and steppes, the bustards are admirably adapted for
running and walking, although they are likewise powerful and rapid in flight.
Their mottled plumage of brown, black, and grey, harmonises with the colora-
tion of their surroundings. In some the food is chiefly vegetable, although supple-
mented by insects and reptiles, but in others it consists mostly of animal matter.

The True The great bustard (Otis tarda), which formerly inhabited many
Bustards. of the wilder, open districts of Britain in large flocks, is the type of
a genus which may be taken to include two species, and is characterised by the
shortness of the beak and the absence of a crest on the head. The legs are

1 In the sun-bittern the young are helpless, while those of the kagu are unknown.

BUSTARDS. 453

relatively short, with a small portion of the tibia bare, and the metatarsus (as in
the other genera) reticulated all round; while the wings are somewhat rounded,
with the third quill the longest.

The male of the great bustard stands between 3 and 4 feet in height, and has
a total length of 45 inches, whereas the female measures about 9 inches. less.
The male has a tuft of white bristle-like hairs, passing backwards and downwards
from each side of the chin, and partially covering a narrow patch of bare skin.
In the same sex the colour of the head is grey; the upper-parts are chestnut-buff,
with black barrings; the primary quills blackish brown, but the rest of the wings
white; the breast is marked with bands of chestnut and grey; the abdomen is
white; and the tail-feathers are reddish, barred with black, and tipped with white.
The female, as a rule, lacks the moustache, and the bands on the breast. Like
many other members of the family, the adult male has an air-pouch opening
beneath the tongue, and running some distance down the front of the neck, which
is most developed during the breeding-season, but at other times probably becomes
so contracted as to become almost unnoticeable. Always unknown in Ireland,
and having disappeared at an earlier epoch from Scotland, the bustard was
probably exterminated as a resident English species in or about the year 1838;
and it is now known only as a rare and casual visitor to the southern counties.
HKastwards its range extends across Central and Southern Europe, through
Palestine, Turkestan, and Southern Siberia to Mantchuria; while it is a winter
visitor to China and Japan, and occasionally straggles into Asia Minor, North
Persia, and North-Western India. It also inhabits North-Western Africa, where
it has now become rare; and it is very scarce in France and Greece, while
for years it has ceased to exist in Scandinavia.

Haunting the great steppes and plains—whether barren or under corn
cultivation—of Europe and Asia, the bustard is a shy and wary bird, associating
during the winter in large flocks, but breaking up into pairs in the breeding-
season, although even then several such pairs may frequent the same neighbourhood,
and the immature individuals still remain in companies. Its food consists mainly
of grain and the young shoots of cereals and other plants, but it will also consume
insects, as well as small reptiles and mammals. Drinking appears to be quite
unnecessary to these birds and their kin. Generally silent, the female when
alarmed gives vent to a kind of hiss, as does her partner; but the male has also a
call-note which has been compared to the syllable prunt. The breeding-season
commences in May, towards the latter part of which the two, or occasionally three
eggs are laid in a hollow in the ground, which may be situated either in the open
plain, or in a corn-field, and may or may not have a scanty lining of dry grass.
In colour, the eggs vary from pale buff to some shade of greenish or brownish
olive, speckled with reddish brown or grey. During the breeding-season the
males, which sometimes desert their consorts, are apt to be very pugnacious,
instances having been known where they have actually attacked human beings.
Mr. C. A. Nicholson observes that “bustards when flushed generally fly two
miles or more, sometimes at least a hundred yards high. They never try to run;
one that I had winged making the most awkward attempt possible to get away
from me, and, though a young bird, showing much more disposition to fight than

454 BUSPARDS, THICKNEES, AND CRANES.

to get away by running. They fly with a regular flap of the wings, and
much faster than they appear to go. I cannot imagine greyhounds being able
to catch bustards, though there seems to be good authority for believing they
did.” A full-grown male bustard will weigh from 26 to 30 lbs., or even rather
more.

Far inferior in size to its larger relative, the little bustard
(0. tetrax) ditters by the absence of the moustache in the male, and
displays a greater diversity between the plumage of the two sexes, as well as a
seasonal variation in that of the male. In the summer plumage, the latter sex, as
represented in our illustration, has the general colour of the upper plumage buffish.

Little Bustard.

LITTLE BUSTARD, IN BREEDING-PLUMAGE (+ nat. size).

brown, vermiculated with black, and two black and two white gorgets on the
lower neck and breast. On the other hand, the female (which is equal in size to
her partner) at all seasons, and the male in winter have the head and upper-parts
streaked and blotched with black, and no black gorgets on the breast. In length
these birds measure only about 17 inches.

The little bustard, which is but a rare and generally a winter visitor to
Britain, is widely spread in suitable localities over Europe and Central Asia,
ranging in winter to the trans-Indus districts of India and to Northern Africa.
From Africa these birds migrate to their northern breeding-haunts in vast flocks
during April, returning in still greater numbers in October, when it is said that in
crossing the plains to the south of the Caucasus they reach to millions. Although

BUSTARDS. 455

in many of their habits resembling the larger species, Mr. Hume states that their
flight is very different, and that they often rise to a great height, and will flutter
and twist about in the air. At other times, however, they fly rapidly and straight;
and when on the wing always call continually. Wary in the cool of the morning
and evening, during the heat of the day they le close in the mustard-tields, which
are their favourite haunts in the Punjab. “They rise suddenly,” writes Mr. Hume,
“with a great pat-pat of the wings; and, though quite invisible till they rise,
startle one with the great breadth of pure white they suddenly reveal, the whole
of the secondaries and much of the primaries being white.”

An extinct bustard belonging to this or one of the allied genera has been
described by the writer from the middle Miocene rocks of Bavaria, and thus serves
to indicate the comparative antiquity of the group.

Long-Beaked Africa south of the Sahara is the home of a number of species of
Bustards. bustards belonging to a genus (Hupodotis), distinguished from the
preceding by the greater length of the beak and legs, and of which there is an out-
lying representative in India (4. edwardsi), and others in China and Australia
(E. wustralis). The wings are large and long, and the plumage of the two sexes
is nearly similar, although the females lack the short pouches found in the males of
most of the species. As there are a great number of these bustards, and their
general type of coloration conforms to that obtaining in the members of the
preceding genus, it would be useless to attempt the description of any particular
species, and our notice may therefore be confined to their habits. The great Indian
bustard frequents open bare or grassy plains, and in the rainy season collects in
small flocks, while in the cold weather it may be observed in wheat-fields, to which
it resorts for the purpose of feeding on the grasshoppers which form its favourite
food. Failing insect food, it will, however, take to fruit and seeds. When flushed,
it generally flies for a long distance at a low elevation before settling again. This
species differs from the common bustard in being polygamous; and during the
breeding-season the males, like many other members of the family, are in the
habit of making a display before the females, probably for the purpose of attraction.
Describing this display, Mr. Hume remarks that, “first the male begins to strut
about, holding his head up as high as if he wanted to lift himself off his legs; then,
after a few turns, he puffs out the upper part of the throat just under the jaws
then draws it in again, then puffs it again, and so on, two, three, or four times, and
then suddenly out goes the whole throat down to the breast, and that part of it
next the latter swells more and more; his tail, already cocked, begins to turn right
back, and the lower throat-bag gets bigger and bigger and longer and longer, till
it looks to be within six inches of the ground. All the feathers of the throat stand
out, and, looked at in front, he seems to have a huge bag covered with feathers
hanging down between his legs, which wobbles about as he struts here and there,
with wings partly unclosed, and occasional sharp snappings of his bill. From time
to time he utters a sort of deep moan, and stands quite still, and then off he struts
again close up to the female, and then away from her.” In addition to insects,
these birds also consume numbers of rats, mice, and reptiles; and this coarse
feeding renders their flesh unpalatable. Difficult to approach within gunshot
range by stalking, bustards may frequently be bagged by driving. In length this

456 BUSTARDS, THICKNEES, AND CKAMNE'S.

species measures from 45 to 50 inches in the male, of which the general weight is
from 17 to 22 lbs.

Of the numerous African representatives of the genus, one of the best known
is the Arabian bustard (2. arabs) of Abyssinia, in which the iris is pale brown,
with dark radiating streaks, the beak is dusky above, and dirty white below,
while the legs are yellowish. The finest of all is, however, the South African kori
bustard (2. kori),—the ghawm-paww of the Boers,—which attains a size and
weight considerably exceeding that of its Oriental cousin. This bird derives its
Dutch name from its habit of feeding on the gum of a species of mimosa, although

ARABIAN BUSTARD,

it is likewise very partial to grasshoppers; and it differs from many of its allies
in being voiceless. Messrs Eglington and Nicholls write that, when feeding on
the open plains, the kori is a very “difficult bird to approach sufficiently near for
the range of a shot-gun; and the best plan to adopt under such circumstances, if on
horseback, is to ride slowly round at a distance of a couple of hundred yards from
the bird and gradually narrow the circle. If this tactic is adopted it will, like
most others of the bustard tribe, often lie down as if to escape notice, and thus a
shot may be obtained, although not without the expenditure of time and trouble.”
Mr. Hume believes that the Indian bustard lays only a single egg; the two eggs
which are not unfrequently found on the ground at a distance of a yard or so apart
probably belonging to different birds.

‘GYVLiSNd SNSSANDOVW INV NVOINOTS

BUSTARDS. 457

a The hubara Gi Deke undulata) of Northern Africa and the
nearly allied Macqueen’s bustard (H. macqueeni) of Western Asia,
represent a genus characterised by the rather short legs, the lengthened and
basally depressed bill, and the presence of a ruff on the neck and a crest on the
head; the latter appendages being larger in the male than the female. Breeding
in Turkestan and South-Western Siberia, as well as in Afghanistan and Northern
Persia, Macqueen’s bustard ranges during the winter into North-Western India
and Southern Persia, from whence a few individuals straggle into Eastern and
Central Europe. In India this species usually makes its appearance in September,
departing again with the commencement of the hot season at the end of March or
beginning of April. During its sojourn there it may be met with in pairs, or
even solitary, although far more generally in small flocks; its favourite haunts
being barren plains dotted here and there with small patches of covert. It is a
silent bird, and chiefly a vegetable feeder; although its African cousin is said to
be insectivorous. Preferring running to flying, Mr. Hume states that Macqueen’s
bustard, when on an open plain, has a habit of squatting close to the ground
beneath a protecting bush or stone, and is at such times invisible even to a
practised eye. Directly, however, it reaches taller covert, it raises itself to its
full height in order to have a good view of its pursuers. In districts where camels
are commonly employed, these birds are easily approached by a gunner mounted
on one of those animals.

Nearly allied to the bustards are the Indian birds known as
floricans, of which there are two species, namely, the Bengal florican
(Sypheotides bengalensis), and the lesser florican (S. aurita). They are charac-
terised by the moderately long, arched, and somewhat broad beak; the long legs,
in which a considerable portion of the tibia is bare; and by the males (which are
smaller than the females) undergoing a second moult in spring, after which the

Florican.

plumage becomes mostly black, with more or less white on the wings, while either
a head-crest or ear-tuft is developed, and the plumes of the breast may become
much lengthened. The hen-birds and young males are coloured much after the
ordinary bustard type, and the former undergo no spring moult. In the case of
the lesser florican, the male of which has an ear-tuft in place of a crest, it is known
that the winter plumage of both sexes is alike, but there has been some doubt
whether this is so with the larger species, although it probably is.

Florican are exclusively Indian birds, spending the whole of their time in the
country, although the smaller species makes seasonal migrations from one district
to another. The dark and conspicuous breeding-plumage of the male would of itself
be sufficient to indicate a difference in the habits of these birds from those of other
bustards. We find, indeed, it stated by Hodgson that although the Bengal species
dwells exclusively upon plains, yet it never frequents “nude or cultivated plains.
Shelter of nature’s furnishing is indispensable to it, and it solely inhabits wide-
spreading plains, sufficiently elevated to be free from inundation, and sufficiently
moist to yield a pretty copious crop of grasses; but grasses not so thick nor so high
as to impede the movements or vision of a well-sized bird that is ever afoot and
always on the look-out. In spite of the exquisite flavour for which these birds are
so famed, florican are by no means fastidious in their food, scarcely anything, from

458 BUSBARDS,- THICKNEES,.AND CRANES.

lizards and snakes to young shoots and grass, coming amiss. They are, however,
generally more herbivorous than carnivorous, although when the country is overrun
with locusts they feed almost entirely on those noisome insects. Shy and wary in
disposition, the florican, except on the rare occasions when he is in thick covert, is
a difficult bird to approach within range, more especially as he is a strong flyer, and
will carry a heavy charge of shot without harm. Unlike a heron, a florican flies
with its head stretched out in front, and its legs tucked away beneath the body.
Except in the breeding-season, when they utter a kind of cluck, florican are silent
birds; and they are almost peculiar in that the two sexes, even during the pairing-
time, live apart from one another in small companies. During the latter season,
the troops of males and females come into the same neighbourhood; and when a
male wishes to attract a temporary partner, he does so by goimg through an
elaborate series of performances somewhat similar to the well-known pantomimic
display of the cock-turkey, although more prolonged and energetic; the bird at
times rising perpendicularly in the air, and humming in a peculiar deep tone. The
female lays two eggs in an apology for a nest at the foot of a tussock in some thick
grass-jungle; one egg being generally more richly coloured than the other. In
winter these birds become extraordinarily fat; and at that season florican-shooting
in the valley of the Ganges and other districts is a favourite sport, which may be
pursued either on foot or from the back of an elephant.”

THE THICKNEES.
Family @DICNEMIDZ.

Although placed by many ornithologists with the plovers, the genus of birds
typically represented by the European thicknee or stone-curlew (Gdicnemus
scolopax) agrees with the bustards in the holorhinal skull, and the absence of a
process at the lower end of the humerus, as well as in the three-toed feet; and we
may accordingly follow Dr. Fiirbringer in regarding the group as nearly allied to
the latter. Externally the thicknees differ from the bustards by the presence of a
tufted oil-gland, by the form and position of the nostrils, by the feet being webbed
to the second joint, and by the second, in place of the third quill of the wing being
the longest. Internally, they differ by the vertebrz of the back articulating by
cup-and-ball, instead of saddle-shaped surfaces, and thereby resemble the plovers.
Both have two notches on the hinder border of the breast-bone, and in both the
metatarsus is reticulated all round. In the thicknees the beak is of moderate
length, stout, and nearly straight, with a slight depression at the base, and the
ridge of the upper mandible prominent; the long nostrils, which do not open in a
groove, being placed near the middle of its length. The wings are of moderate
length; the tail is graduated and formed of twelve feathers; and the legs are
rather long, with a small part of the tibia bare. In all the species the eye is
large, and the plumage mottled and striated with shades of buff and brown. ‘The
Kuropean species, which measures from 16 to 17 inches in length, is especially
characterised by the conspicuous streaking of the breast; the presence of a dark
bar across the lesser wing-coverts, and the white tips to the greater wing-coverts.

THICKNEES. 459

A common summer visitor to the heathy and other open districts of England, as
well as to many parts of North-Western Europe, the ordinary thicknee is a per-
manent resident on the shores of the Mediterranean and in North Africa, as well
as in Palestine and Persia; while in summer it also visits Turkestan and Western
Siberia, and in winter migrates to India. India also possesses a resident variety,
distinguished by its shorter wing; while the genus is represented by four species
in Africa, by two in South America, and one in Australia.

The thicknees are largely nocturnal in their habits, and frequent much the

COMMON THICKNEE (+ nat. size).

same kind of country as the bustards, where they feed chiefly on wormis, slugs, and
insects, although they will also devour field-voles and reptiles. Their ery is loud
and clear, although harsh, and is uttered with the greatest frequency on moonlight
nights. A rapid runner, the common thicknee is likewise a bird of strong flight,
frequently flying at some considerable height above the ground. The two blotched
or streaked eggs are laid in England upon bare stony ground, with which their
coloration harmonises so exactly as to render them practically invisible; but in
India, where the number is occasionally three, the hollow is lined with a little grass.
Both sexes take part in incubation; and if a sitting bird be disturbed, it will
immediately run off, leaving the eggs to be protected by their resemblance to the
surroundings. After running a short distance, the bird itself will generally lie

460 BUSTARDS, THICKNEES, AND GRANES.

down and skulk, with its outstretched neck closely applied to the ground, and in
this position is most likely to be mistaken for a large stone, unless its large eye
should happen to attract the spectators attention.

THE SERIEMAS.
Family CARIAMIDA,

The remarkable birds known as seriemas, which are represented by two
species, assigned to as many genera, are confined to South America, and are some .
of those puzzling forms which render systematic ornithology so difficult and un-
satisfactory. Various views have obtained as to the relationship of these birds,
some ornithologists believing that they are allied to the secretary-vulture. On
this view they were at one time placed among the Accipitrines; but as they possess
the slit (schizognathous) palate, which is the older type, it is clear that if they have
relation to the secretary-vulture, the latter (as Mr. Beddard suggests) must be
transferred here, as being a more specialised form. Many ornithologists are,
however, now of opinion that the nearest allies of the seriemas are the rails,
bustards, and cranes; although there is still much divergence of view as to their
exact position. Mr. Sclater’s plan of placing them between the bustards and
cranes, in near association with the trumpeters, which is followed here, must, how-
ever, be regarded as a more or less provisional measure; and it must be confessed
that the inclusion of these two families in the Alectorides very seriously interferes
with any attempt to define that group. In any case, a linear arrangement of the
members of this and the allied order cannot possibly express their true relation-
ships. While agreeing with the bustards in their holorhinal skulls, and the absence
of tracts bare of plumage on the sides of the neck, the seriemas differ by the
presence of four toes, and by the breast-bone having but one notch, as well as by
the presence of a naked oil-gland; the latter bemg almost the only character
by which the group can be differentiated from the rails, in which the oil-gland is
tufted.

The Brazilian seriema (Cariama cristata), from South-Eastern Brazil, is a
long-legged, and somewhat long-necked bird, of somewhat larger size than a
bittern, and with a peculiarly upright carriage. The head is large, and the beak
comparatively short, broad, and depressed, with its tip bent down somewhat after
the fashion of that of a vulture. In the leg the tibia is bare for some distance, the
metatarsus is covered in front with scutes, and the short toes are provided with
strong curved claws, which also recall those of an accipitrine. A tuft of bristly
feathers metatarises from the base of the bill, while there is also a short crest on the
neck, and the feathers of the breast are lanceolate. The wing is short, although hard
and powerful, with the fourth and fifth quills the longest, and the secondaries greatly
elongated; the tail being long, graduated, and composed of ten feathers. The
internal anatomy comes nearest to that of the cranes, with some approach to the
rails. In general colour, the plumage is grey, each feather being marked with
zigzag darker lines on the upper-parts; the elongated feathers of the head and
neck are blackish brown; the quills are brown, with white bands on the inner

SERIEMAS. 461

webs; and while the central pair of tail-feathers are uniform greyish brown, the
other eight are blackish brown with white tips and roots. The iris of the eye is
sulphur-yellow, the naked ring round the eye bluish, the beak coral-red, and
the leg reddish brown in front, and redder on the sides. The female is more
yellowish grey in colour, with a shorter crest on the neck. Burmeister’s seriema
(Chunga burmeisteri), from Argentina, now generally considered to represent a

BRAZILIAN SERIEMA.

distinct genus, is smaller and browner, with scarcely any tuft at the base of
the back.

The most remarkable feature about the Brazilian seriema is its resemblance,
both as regards form, carriage, and the coloration of the plumage, to the secretary-
vulture; with which, as already mentioned, it has been associated by some orni-
thologists. If we are right in placing the bird in its present serial position, and
associating the secretary-vulture with the Accipitrines, it is almost impossible to
account for this resemblance in any satisfactory way; the circumstance that the

462 BUSTARDS, THTECKNEES, AND CRANES.

two birds are inhabitants of widely separated continents, putting mimicry out of
the question. These birds are found in open districts in the interior of Brazil,
where the ground is either clad with grass, or dotted over with low vegetation ;
and are generally found in pairs, or, during the breeding-season, in family parties
of three or four. The coloration of the plumage harmonises well with that of the
soil of the grassless districts. Mainly diurnal in its habits, the seriema often
reveals its presence by its peculiar ery, which has been compared to the bark
of a dog, and is most generally uttered in the early morning. In spite of being
such an essentially cursorial bird, at night the seriema roosts on the bough of
some tree. Its food consists chiefly of snakes, lizards, etc.,on which account the
bird is strictly protected by the Brazilians; and in this respect we may notice
another resemblance to the secretary-vulture. Young rats, mice, worms, etc., also
form a portion of the diet. During the pairing-time, which takes place in
February, the males attract the females by a display analogous to that noticed
under the head of the bustards. The nest of twigs is built in a low or moderately
tall tree; and at the proper season contains a pair of pale-coloured eggs sparingly
blotched with rusty-red. The down-clad young remain, it is said, a few days in
the nest before they are carried down by their parents. Seriemas have laid in
the London Zoological Gardens, and in two instances a young bird has been
hatched, but in both the offspring has been devoured by its parent.

THE TRUMPETERS.
Family PsoPHuUD2.

The trumpeters (Psophia), al-
though less aberrant than the seriemas,
form another South American family
of somewhat doubtful affinity, which
may be best placed here, as apparently
connecting the seriemas with the
cranes. While agreeing with the two
preceding families in having oval
(holorhinal) nasal apertures in the
skull, they differ from both in that
the breast-bone has no notch, while
there are long tracts devoid of plum-
age on the sides of the neck, the
number of toes being four. In appear-
ance, these birds, of which there
are several species, may be lkened
to large, long-legged, blackish guinea-fowls; the head and beak being strikingly
fowl-like. In these birds the body is stout; the neck of moderate length:
the head of medium size; the beak short and swollen, with its base convex, and
its tip bent down and compressed; and the leg is long, with much of the tibia
bare; and the toes (of which the third and fourth are connected by a basal

TRUMPETER.

CRANES. 463

membrane) furnished with sharply-pointed claws. The short wings have the
fourth quill the longest; the tail is abbreviated; and the plumage is generally
elongated above, while beneath it becomes downy. In the common trumpeter, or
agami (P. occipitans), the general hue of the plumage is black, with purple and
ereenish reflections in certain parts, and steely blue on the lower neck and breast.
The iris is reddish brown, the bare skin round the eye, as well as the leg, flesh-
coloured, and the beak greyish white. The trumpeters are forest-haunting birds,
living in troops, which may number as many as a hundred or two hundred head ;
and taking their name from the peculiarly clear and trumpet-like ery, which
is uttered with widely opened beak, and lasts for fully a mmute. To produce
this deep-toned ery, the windpipe is specially modified, being elongated so as to
extend under the skin of the abdomen. The trumpeters are poor flyers, nesting
on the ground beneath the foot of trees, where they lay ten or more bright
green eggs, and subsisting on fruits, corn, and insects. By the natives of Brazil
these birds are tamed and domesticated for the purpose of protecting ordinary
poultry; and in this state exhibit remarkable attachment and affection towards
their owners, whom they follow about as closely as does a dog.

THE CRANES.
Family GRUIDZ.

For a long period associated with the herons and storks, to which they present
a marked outward similarity, the cranes differ widely from those birds in the
structure of the palate, and the condition of their new-born young, as well as in
many features of the anatomy of their skeleton and soft parts. Externally, cranes
are characterised by their elongated legs and neck; generally long beak; the long
wing, with ten primary quills; the plumed and elongated inner secondaries; the
. short, twelve-feathered tail; and the elevation of the small first toe above the
level of the other three. In their skeleton they differ from all the preceding
families of this order, in that the nasal apertures of the skull are in the form of
long slits (schizorhinal); while they agree with the trumpeters in the absence of
any notch in the breast-bone, and also in the presence of a very large aperture on
the inner face of the lower end of the metacoracoid. Their cannon-bone resembles
that of the ducks (see figure on p. 324) and flamingoes, in that the fourth trochlea
is much shorter than the second

a feature which at once distinguishes this bone
from the corresponding one of a heron or stork, in which the three trochlea are
subequal (see figure on p. 290); and they differ from the bustards in the V-shaped
furcula. In the presence of bare tracts, some distance up the neck, the cranes
approximate to the trumpeters and rails; and they are further characterised by
the oil-gland being tufted. Their plumage undergoes a double annual moult.
Cranes are now represented by about sixteen species, of which the greater
number are confined to the Old World, while there are none in South America.
Geologically, they are a somewhat ancient group, as remains referred to the
existing genus have been obtained from strata of Upper Eocene age. This
harmonises with the view of Mr. Beddard, by whom cranes are regarded as the

464 BUSTARDS, THICKNEES, AND. CRANES.

ancestral stock from which originated the rails, the Limicole, and most of the other
birds treated in this chapter. It will, however, scarcely support his opinion that
the herons are likewise descended from the cranes, seeing that a meinber of the
latter existed in the London Clay, belonging to the lower part of the Eocene
period; while it is scarcely likely that the cannon-bone of a heron could have
been derived from that of a crane.

Although the members of the family have been arranged under
several genera, it seems on the whole preferable to include all but the
crowned cranes in the typical genus (Grus). In the ordinary cranes the long and
straight beak is of moderate length, compressed and pointed, with the nostrils
placed in a groove near the middle, and partially closed behind by membrane ; the
wings have the third quill the longest; a large part of the tibia is bare; the front
of the metatarsus is covered with scutes; and the toes are short, with blunt nails.
Generally there is a naked region about the eye and the base of the beak, while
occasionally the entire head may be devoid of feathers. They are birds of large
size, with the plumage either grey or white; and the elongation of the imner
secondaries into a kind of. false tail, gives them a peculiarly graceful appearance.
Inhabiting extensive plains and swamps, and endowed with a powerful and long-

True Cranes.

sustained flight, most cranes are in the habit of performing migrations of great
length. The windpipe being lengthened and arranged in coils within a cavity in
the breast-bone enables them to utter, when alarmed or on the wing, a loud
trumpet-like call, which is often audible at a distance of a couple of miles.
Terrestrial in their habits,—it is said never perching on trees,—all the cranes
build on the ground; their huge: nests being placed in swamps, and the two or
occasionally three eggs having a greenish ground more or less spotted with
reddish.

The common erane (G. cinerea), which some three centuries ago
nested in the British Islands, where it is now but a rare visitor, is
the typical representative of the genus, and is characterised by the moderate

Common Crane.

length of the beak, which is high and sloping at the base, and straight in its
terminal half, by the naked forehead, cheeks, and crown, and the general grey hue
of the plumage. The naked part of the crown is reddish, the sides of the face and
neck are white, and the elongated secondaries black. Young birds are nearly
uniformly coloured. In length, full-grown specimens measure from 43 to 48
inches. ‘The crane is widely distributed over Europe and Central and Northern
Asia, visiting India, Persia, South China, and Northern Africa in winter, and
passing through Japan on its migrations. Its breeding-range extends from the
Arctic Circle in Western Siberia, to Italy and the Danube Valley. In North
America this species is represented by the brown crane (G. canadensis). Cranes
usually reach their breeding-grounds in Central Europe from the south at the end
of March or April, while a month later they arrive in the Arctic regions. At all
times gregarious, they migrate in vast flocks, which fly during the day at a great
height in the air in a V- or W-shaped formation, each bird having its long legs
stretched out behind. Writing of the flight of the American species, Dr. Newberry
observes that, under the orders of an experienced leader, “each bird keeps his
place in the ranks; the advancing column now rides higher over some suspected

powertns

EAST AFRICA

“WZ

yA MME A

nn
wt,

WU,

BALEARIC ‘CRANE.

CRANES. 465

spot, now falls along an open sandy reach, swaying meanwhile to the right or left.
As it passes on, the individual birds are blended in the hazy distance, till, just
before lost to view, the line becomes like an immense serpent gliding mysteriously
through the air. When about to alight, fearful lest the shadows of the woods
harbour unseen dangers, the
cranes pass by the leafy in-
tricacies where the ibises and
other less suspicious birds feed,
and choose a spot for the
advantages it may offer of
uninterrupted vision. By nature
one of the most wary and
discreet of birds, his experience
has taught the crane to value
this gift and put it to the best
use. His vigilance is rarely
relaxed, even when he is feeding,
where less thoughtful birds
would feel perfectly secure.”
This wariness renders the crane
an exceedingly difficult bird to
shoot; although the flocks fre-
quenting the sandbanks of the
Indian rivers may be readily
approached in a boat, to the COMMON CRANE.

passing of which they are in-

different. Cranes feed regularly in the early morning, and also at other times in
the day, and at night; while the vast quantity of grain a flock will consume,
renders their visits by no means welcome to the cultivator. In sleeping,
they invariably stand upon one leg, with the head and neck thrust i among the
plumage of the back. In the bogs of Lapland the crane breeds in vast numbers ;
the nest being made of small twigs intertwined with long, sedgy grass, its diameter
being about 2 feet, and its depth several inches.

The sarus crane (G@. antigone) of India, which attains a length
of 52 inches, together with the nearly allied Australian crane
(G. australiaca), represent a second group of the genus, characterised by the longer
beak, and by the head and neck being bare and covered for 3 or 4 inches with
numerous crimson warts, from which grow a few scanty black hairs, most
developed down the nape. Below this the neck is whitish grey, passing gradually
into the blue-grey of the rest of the plumage, save the quills and inner webs of
the tail-feathers, which are dusky slaty. In old birds, however, the elongated
feathers become nearly white. The sarus is probably confined to India and Upper
Burma, where it is always found in the neighbourhood of water, and is less
gregarious than the common species, being generally seen in pairs. It is also far
less of a grain-eating bird; while, except when driven by drought, it does not
migrate. It is likewise tame and confiding, and so attached are the members of a

VOL. IV.—30

Sarus Crane.

406 BOUSTARDS, LHICKNEES, AND (CRANES.

pair that on two occasions Mr. Hume has known the survivor pine away and die
on the death of its mate; and he, therefore, recommends the sportsman, if he must
kill one of these beautiful birds, always to shoot the pair.

, Far more beautiful than either of the foregoing is the lovely

White Crane. ; ; : Sr : =

white crane (G. lewcogeranus), inhabiting a vast area in Central and
Northern Asia, and migrating in winter to India, and probably other Oriental
countries. It is characterised by having the head and neck only partially bare,
and the whole plumage, with the exception of the black quills, white; the legs and
naked skin of the face being red. North America also possesses a white repre-
sentative of the genus in the whooping crane (G. wmericana). Ma. Hume observes
that the Asiatic species “is the lily of birds; and stand in what position it may,
the entire outline of its form presents a series of the most graceful and harmonious
curves.” This crane is found only where there are large sheets of shallow water,
in which grow abundance of the rushes and other aquatic plants forming its chief
nutriment. To show how deceptive is the appearance of cranes when seen from a
distance, Dr. Coues relates that once, while prongbuck-shooting on the prairie, his
companion and himself saw what they “took to be an antelope standing quietly
feeding, with his broad, white stern towards us, and only about five hundred yards
off. We attempted for at least fifteen minutes to ‘flag’ the creature up to us,
waving a handkerchief on a ramrod in the most approved style. This proving
unavailing, my friend proceeded to stalk the game, and crawled on his belly for
about half the distance before the ‘antelope’ unfolded his broad, black-tipped
wings and flapped off, revealed at length a whooping crane.”

Among the numerous other members of the genus, space admits
of reference to a few only. Of these the great wattled crane
(G. carunculata), of South Africa, takes its name from the presence of two feathered
flaps of skin depending from the chin; the general colour of the upper plumage
being slaty grey, with the neck white and the remainder black. This crane goes
about in pairs, which haunt one locality for years. The pretty little demoiselle
erane ((. virgo), which breeds in North Africa, Spain, Southern Russia, and a large
area of Central and Eastern Asia, while in winter it visits Central Africa and India,
is distinguished from all the foregoing by its shorter beak, longer legs, and shorter
neck, as well as by its inferior size, and the long lanceolate feathers of the neck
and breast. In length this bird is only about 30 inches; and in colour the head,
neck, and long breast-plumes are black; a tuft of loose white feathers extends
outwards and backwards from the eye, while the general hue is purplish grey, with
the quills black. In India, where it arrives late in October, this crane associates
in flocks comprising from fifty to one hundred individuals, and frequents rivers
rather than marshes. Being mainly a vegetable-feeder, it is very destructive to
grain. The eggs are olive-green speckled with rufous; and, while the female is
sitting, the male keeps constant guard. Although somewhat apt to wound its
assailant with its sharp inner claw, this crane affords good sport with a falcon.
Allied to this species is the much larger Stanley crane (G. paradisea)—often
referred to the distinct genus Tetrapteryx—ot South Africa; in which the whole
plumage is leaden-blue, with the exception of the white crown of the head and the
black extremities of the drooping secondaries. This species, although widely

Other Species.

COURLANS. 467

distributed, is nowhere abundant, and is always found in pairs. It inhabits the
Karru country, at a great distance from water, and is mainly carnivorous. In
confinement it becomes extremely tame, although in the wild state it is very shy.

The two species of African crowned cranes take their name from
the narrow fan-shaped crest of twisted bristle-like feathers radiating
from an elongated centre on the top of the head, by which they can be immedi-
ately recognised. They are further characterised by the stout body, moderately
long neck, large head, and the moderate length of the beak, which is regularly
conical ; as well as by the broad wing, in which the fourth quill is the longest, and by
the long legs and powerful claws. The cheeks are naked, and the feathers of the
lower part of the neck hackle-shaped. Of the two species, the Balearic crane
(Balearica pavonina) is mainly a North and West African form, while the Cape
crowned crane (B. chrysopelargus) is from the southern districts. In it the general
colour of the plumage is leaden-grey ; the crown shows rings of white and yellow,
with black tips to its component bristles; the bare parts of the face are red; the
top of the head and chin are black, as is the tail; while the outer feathers of the
wings are white and inner red, both being overhung by some loose yellow plumes.
In the Balearic crane, while the front part of the naked area on the side of the
face is red, the hinder portion is glistening white. The habits of both appear to
be very similar to those of several of the true cranes; these birds associating
either in pairs or small companies, and frequenting the neighbourhood of water.
On the west coast the Balearic crane is domesticated by the natives.

Crowned Cranes.

THE COURLANS.
Family ARAMIDZ.

Agreeing in its osteology and feathering very closely with the cranes, the
Brazilian courlan or limpkin (Aramus scolopaceus) of tropical South America, is
generally regarded as indicating a distinct family, although by some writers it is
placed with the rails, from which it is at once distinguished by the slit-like nasal
apertures of the skull. This bird, which measures 25 inches in length, is not
unlike a large rail in general appearance; having a somewhat slender, straight
beak, which is double the length of the head, and characterised by its extreme
lateral compression. At the base of this beak the slit-like nostrils are situated in
a groove extending along half its length. The legs and feet are long and slender;
the lower half of the tibia being bare, and the compressed metatarsus covered with
large scutes. The wings are broad and rounded. In colour, the Brazilian courlan
is chocolate-brown, with purple and bronze reflections on the upper-parts, and
some longitudinal white flecks on the head and sides of the neck. In the West
Indies, Florida, and Central America its place is taken by the Florida courlan
(A. pictus), distinguished by the white markings extending over the back, wing-
coverts, and lower-parts. Courlan frequent swampy districts, and are remarkably
rail-like in their habits, flying with the same slow, flapping flight, and, when
flushed, soon dropping again. Among reeds, where they make regular paths, their
movements are extremely rapid.

468 BUSTARDS, THICKNEES, AND. GRAWES.

THE Kacu.
Family RHINOCH@TIDZ.

A remarkably grey-coloured bird from New Caledonia, known as the kagu
Ys 8
Rhinochetus jubatus), forms the type of a distinct family nearly allied to the
J , )
cranes, from which it is probably a specialised offshoot. Somewhat larger than a
night-heron, the kagu is easily recognised by its moderately long beak, general
grey colour, and the elongated pendent crest arising from the back of the head.
While agreeing with the cranes in the form of the nasal apertures in the skull, and
the absence of a notch in the breast-bone, the kagu differs by the presence of a
powder-down patch on each side of the rump, and by the naked oil-gland; while
it is unique among the group in having a bridged (desmognathous) palate. The
| s 5 s S
plumage of the under-parts is reddish brown, as is the tip of the tail; the primary
quills are barred with black, white, and rufous; and the beak, legs, and feet are
orange. The kagu is a nocturnal bird, feeding upon worms, molluses, and insects ;
5 5 fo) ? 2 ’
but of its breeding-habits nothing is at present known. It is remarkable for the
strange antics it performs; these being exhibited to a certain extent even in
5 ) 5
captivity, and recalling those of the cranes.

Madagascar An allied bird from Madagascar (Mesites variegatus), differs from
EU the kagu, and resembles the other members of the group in having a

slit (schizognathous) palate, and also in having the nostrils perforated instead of
completely separated. It is further distinguished from that bird by the presence
of a notch on each side of the lower border of the breast-bone, and by the more
complex powder-down patches. The structure of the palate clearly shows that it
is a less specialised bird than the kagu, from which it is separated as the type of
a distinct family—the Mesitide. It may be mentioned that in the possession of
powder-down patches these birds approach the herons; and it is in part owing to
this feature that Mr. Beddard suggests a relationship between the two groups.

THE SUN-BITTERN.
Family HURYPYGIDZ.

The last of these aberrant crane-like birds is the so-called sun-bittern (Hurypyga
helias) of South America, which is structurally characterised by having a notch on
each side of the breast-bone, a naked oil-gland, and powder-down patches, but shows
no bare tracts on the sides of the neck. It is unique among the group in having
helpless young. The sun-bittern is a comparatively small bird, measuring only
16 inches in length, with a long pointed beak, and a somewhat thin and elongated
neck, and a peculiar transversely striped coloration of white, brown, and_ black.
The head and neck are black, with a brown streak above the eye, and another
running backwards from the angle of the beak to the neck; the chin and throat
are white; the feathers of the back. and scapular region are black striped with
rusty red; the bastard-wing and wing-covers are black and white; the feathers of
the neck barred with brown and black; those of the under-parts yellowish or

SUN-BITTERN. 469

brownish white; the quills clear grey, mottled with white and black, and barred
with brown; while the tail-feathers are similarly coloured, but distinguished by
the broad bands of black passing posteriorly into brown. ‘The iris is red, the beak
waxy yellow, and the leg straw-coloured. This bird, which has not been inaptly
compared to a large, broad-winged butterfly when in flight, always frequents the
wooded banks of rivers, and is especially common on the Orinoco. Frequently
solitary, although occasionally seen in pairs, the sun-bittern derives its name from

‘ YA\\ I) ||Fz
cy

- = = V | | i jy, =
— 4 . / J UH a) Va SREY. IS ay

; a is . se
Vaio Athy SOR
WTA he I)

SUN-BITTERN,

its habit of basking in sunny spots, where it delights to spread out its plumage.
Its food consists of flies and other insects, which are sought on the ground and
low herbage; the bird at such times being in constant motion, with its head
darting here and there, and but seldom taking to flight. In capturing insects it
suddenly darts out its head with lightning-like rapidity, and scarcely ever fails
in its aim. The nest is usually placed in a tree, at a distance of a few feet from
the ground; the egos being two in number, and of a greyish colour, with blotches
and specks of reddish.

C HAP aR) xox

Tur PLovERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, JACANAS, AND GULLS —
Orders LimicoLa and GAVIA.

Tur birds named above, together with certain allied forms, are all closely con-
nected, but may be conveniently divided into two orders, of which the second is
represented by the gulls and terns. Both groups agree with those treated in the
immediately preceding chapters in having cleft (schizognathous) palates, and their
young covered with down and active at birth. They differ, however, from all the
preceding groups of birds in that the humerus (as shown in the figure on p. 295 of
the third volume) is furnished with a projecting (ectepicondylar) process on the
outer side of its lower extremity ; while they are also characterised by the vertebree
of the back having their articular surfaces of a more or less cup-and-ball type,
instead of saddle-shaped. In all of them the nasal apertures in the skull are slit-
like (schizorhinal),! and in all the oil-gland is tufted, while on the upper back the
spinal tract of feathers is forked. The whole group is a very extensive one,
including considerably over three hundred species.

Plovers and The plovers, snipe, sandpipers, coursers, ete, collectively con-
ID stituting the order Limicole, are long-legged, and frequently long-

billed, birds, characterised by the angle of the lower jaw being produced backwards
and recurved, by the very general presence of basipterygoid processes on the
rostrum of the skull, and by the feet being but seldom completely webbed, as well
as by the absence of a certain feature connected with the bones of the wing which
is characteristic of the gulls, and will be alluded to under that heading? As a rule
the breast-bone has two notches on its hinder border; and in some eases the third
toe is serrated, while the third and fourth toes may be connected for some distance
by a web, or all three front toes may have lobe-like expansions, or even a web. In
all cases the first toe is small, and it may be elevated above the plane of the others,
or even wanting. The wings are relatively long and pointed, with ten primary
quills; while the tail is short, with the number of feathers variable. As a rule
these birds undergo an autumnal and a spring moult; the young birds in their
first plumage more or less closely resembling the adults in their summer dress.
In their first autumn, the young begin to change into the second plumage, differing
very little from the winter dress of the adults; the change taking place, however,
not by a moult, but by an actual alteration in the colour of the feathers themselves,
although a few battered feathers may be replaced. In the succeeding spring these
1 Except in the black-backed courser (Pluvianus).

2 Mr. Beddard (Proc, Zool. Soc., 1890, p. 839) has formulated certain characters by which the skulls of the
zroup can be defined from those of the cranes and gulls, but they are too abstruse to be quoted here.

BPRATINCOLLES: 471

immature birds assume the bright summer plumage of the adults, although they
differ from the latter in having brighter wing-coverts; these feathers being only
changed by the adults in the autumn, and thus permanently presenting the dull
hues of the winter dress. In their habits all the members of the order are more
or less migratory, and from this cause the winter distribution of the group is well-
nigh cosmopolitan. Considerable diversity of view obtains as to the classification
of the typical Limicole. By some they are divided into the three family
groups of plovers, sandpipers and snipes, and pratincoles; the thicknees—here
classed with the bustards—being added as a fourth. In his monograph on the
distribution of these birds, Mr. Seebohm classed the whole of them (inclusive of
the thicknees) in a single family, but in a later work he removed the thicknees
and the black-backed courser to form one family, and the coursers and pratincoles,
together with certain other birds, as a second family; both of which were placed
next to the gulls. An equally marked diversity of view obtains as to the number
of genera into which these birds should be divided; Mr. Seebohm being one of
those who uses such terms in an extended sense. In both these matters we
endeavour to take a middle course.

PRATINCOLES AND COURSERS.
Family CURSORIUDZ.

The birds above-named differ from all the other members of the order in the
want of basipterygoid processes on the rostrum of the under surface of the skull ;
while they are further characterised by having their oval nostrils opening on the
surface of the beak without being sunk in a groove. In both these characters
they resemble the thicknees, to which the black-backed courser presents a further
approximation in the oval (holorhinal) nasal apertures of the skull. Externally,
these birds may be distinguished from the thicknees and bustards by the presence
of four toes in the pratincoles and by the metatarsus of the coursers being covered
with scutes instead of reticulated scales. The absence of basipterygoid processes
in these birds cannot justify their affiliation to the gulls; but it may be a question
whether the pratincoles are rightly included in the same family as the coursers.

The forked tail and somewhat swallow-like appearance and
habits of the pratincole (Glareola pratincola) render it, at first sight,
somewhat difficult to believe that these birds are near relatives of the plovers; but
closer observation will show that their comparatively long legs are adapted for

Pratincoles.

running in the usual plover-like manner, and that it is only when on the wing
hawking for flies that a superficial resemblance is presented to the swallows.
Moreover, in certain members of the genus, the forking of the tail is well-nigh
obsolete. As a group, these birds, of which there are ten species, are characterised
by the presence of the first toe, and by the tail being more or less forked. The
third toe is united to the fourth by a short membrane; and the first quill of the
wings is the longest. By Mr. Seebohm they are regarded as specially modified
allies of the coursers, retaining the first toe of the ancestral stock. Many of them
show resemblances to the latter in their black under wing-coverts, white upper

472 PLOVER GROUP.

tail-coverts, and the serration of the claw of the third toe. The group is confined
to the Old World, where it is represented in Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia ;
but the majority of the species are tropical. Like the coursers, the pratincoles
feed almost exclusively on insects, although they differ from those allies in
capturing their prey while on the wing. They frequent sandy plains or marshes,
and the banks of rivers and lakes, as well as lagoons. At all times of the year
they associate in flocks, although each male selects but a single partner.
The common pratincole, which is the typical representative of the genus, is

COMMON PRATINCOLE (4 nat. size).

a small bird measuring from 9 to 10 inches in length, and inhabiting the
warmer parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa; an occasional straggler rarely
reaching the British Islands. In colour most of the upper-parts are clove-brown ;
the primaries nearly black; the upper tail-coverts white; the feathers of
the deeply- forked tail white at the base, and elsewhere brownish black; the
chin white; the throat pale buff, bordered by a black line ascending to the
eye; the breast brownish buff; the under-parts and thighs buffish white; and
the under wing-coverts and axillaries! chestnut. The especial characteristics of
the species are the great length of the outer tail-feathers, and the chestnut
axillaries. Nordmann’s pratincole (G. melanoptera), which inhabits a large area

1 The long and stiff under wing-coverts lying nearest to the armpit.

COURSEES. 473

of Central and Northern Asia in summer, migrating in winter to South Africa,
may be distinguished by its black axillaries; while the Indian _pratincole
(G. orientalis), ranging from India to North Australia, differs from the common
species by the slight forking of its tail. The white-naped pratincole (G. nuchalis)
and Biittikofer’s pratincole (G. megapoda) may be cited as examples of an
African group of the genus, in which the nape has a light-coloured collar, and the
forking of the tail is very slight. Of the common species Mr. Seebohm writes
that, although it sometimes frequents cultivated jands, “its favourite haunts are on
the sandy tracts either near the sea or on the table-lands of the interior. The
pratincole spends a considerable portion of its time in the air, hawking for insects
like a gigantic swallow, skimming along with graceful motion, wheeling and dart-
ing about, chasing its prey in all directions. Upon the ground it is equally at
its ease, and runs to and fro with surprising swiftness in spite of its short legs.
Sometimes it even wades in the little pools with which its haunts often abound ;
frequently it flies at a considerable height, occasionally very low, just skimming
along above the ground.” Beetles and grasshoppers appear to constitute its
favourite food. These birds do not make any nest, but lay their two or three
ego's on the bare ground, in most cases without even taking the trouble of scratch-
ing a hollow for their reception. The eggs, which are generally laid in May, are
nearly oval, and extremely fragile; their ground-colour varying from yellow to
slaty grey, upon which are numerous streaks and blotches of dark blackish brown.
Like many other members of the order, pratincoles endeavour to draw intruders
away from their nests by simulating lameness or some other injury. An early
migrant, this species usually reaches its breeding-grounds in Spain, France, the
valley of the Danube, Asia Minor, or North Africa during April.
Beate Although agreeing with the lapwings in the scutes covering
_ their legs, the handsome birds known as coursers resemble the
pratincoles in the absence of grooves in the beak for the nostrils, and likewise
in the characters of the base of the skull; but they differ in the absence of the
first toe, in the short and nearly even tail, and in their habit of taking their food
while on the ground. The typical genus includes nine well-defined species, which
are mainly restricted to the warmer parts of the Old World, exclusive of Australia ;
while the African black-backed courser represents a genus (Pluvianus) by itself,
distinguished from all other members of the order by the oval (holorhinal) nasal
apertures of the skull.
Cream-Coloured The best known and typical representative of the group is the
Courser. cream-coloured courser (Cursorius gallicus), which inhabits the desert
areas stretching from Northern and North-Eastern Africa, through Arabia, Persia,
Baluchistan, and Afghanistan, to the Punjab, Sind, and Rajputana, and occasionally
wanders into Britain and other parts of Europe. A somewhat aberrant member
of the group, as regards coloration, this species is characterised by the general pale,
wood-brown hue tinged with reddish buff of the upper-parts ; the head being butf
on the top, and grey tipped with black behind; a white, and below it a black
streak running above the eye; the primaries and under wing-coverts nearly black ;
the secondaries dark brown with buff outer webs and white tips; the tail-feathers
marked with a black spot near the end; the under-parts buftish white ; and the legs

474 PLOVER GROUP.

cream-colour. The nearly black axillaries and under wing-coverts, coupled with the
buff outer webs of the secondaries, will, however, serve to distinguish it from all
its allies, the small courser (C. somalensis) being smaller, with greyish butt
axillaries. In length the cream-coloured courser varies from 9 to 10 inches.
Essentially a desert-bird, the cream-coloured courser (as may be seen in a case
of desert-haunting birds in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington)
harmonises so closely in coloration with its sombre surroundings as to be almost
invisible at a short distance. In such districts, Mr. Seebohm states that “it lives

|
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i

~ i
il
LH,

Ni it it

BLACK-BACKED COURSER (3 nat. size).

on the arid sand-plains or on the bare elevated plateaus, where scarce a tuft of
scanty herbage or a bush is to be found. It loves to frequent the bases of sand-
hills, and is sometimes seen in the miserable desert-pastures or amongst the
sand-downs on the outskirts of the oases. In these dismal, uninteresting regions
the courser trips about in pairs, or less frequently in little parties. If it is not
exactly a shy bird, it appears to be a very wary one, and runs quickly off to
conceal itself as the traveller approaches. It prefers to run like lightning over
the sand rather than to take wing, every now and then pausing for a moment to
look warily around to see if it is still pursued. When alarmed, it often runs off
and conceals itself either by squatting close to the sand, or hiding under a stone or
tuft of herbage, where its sand-coloured plumage effectually conceals it from view.

oO
f=}

PLOVERS. 475

It generally runs a little distance before taking wing, and seldom seems to fly
very high. If a flock be observed, they are usually seen scattered up and down
the sandy tract, not feeding close together. When danger threatens, each looks
out for itself, taking refuge in the nearest available cover, or crouching flat down
on the sand.” The food of this bird consists of insects and their larve, more
especially the swarms of grasshoppers frequenting its haunts. It is reported to
generally lay its two or three eggs in a hollow of the ground, which may be
a natural one or excavated by the bird itself; but in the Punjab it may nest
among stubble or beneath tussocks of grass. The eggs have an ochraceous buff
ground-colour, blotched and speckled with buffish brown, and marbled with greyish
veinings which appear to underlie the darker colours.
Black-Backed This species (Pluvianus egyptius) differs, as we have seen, in
Courser. the character of the nasal region of the skull from its allies, and is on
this account referred to a distinct genus. Externally, it may be recognised at a
glance by its uniformly black back and scapulars, the black also extending as
a band on each side of the breast, running forwards as a streak below the eye to
the beak, and crowning the summit of the head. It resembles Jerdon’s courser
(C. bitorquatus) of India, in having white bands across some of the primary quills,
and also in the absence of serrations on the claw of the third toe; while in the
relative shortness of the metatarsus it approaches Lichtenstein’s courser
(C. senegalensis) of tropical Africa, in which the serrations of the claw of the
third toe may also be sometimes wanting. An accidental visitor to Spain, Algeria,
and Palestine, the black-backed courser inhabits the Nile Valley, from Cairo to
Khartum, and thence ranges across Central Africa to the Gabun and Angola.

This courser, often termed the black-headed plover, is very common on the
banks of the Nile, where several pairs may often be seen on a single sandbank ;
and brings itself under notice by the loud chattering ery it utters every time it
takes wing. The most remarkable peculiarity in its habits is its custom of
burying its eggs in moist sand where they undergo incubation, the trait having
been verified by Captain Verner during the Sudan expedition. That gentleman
on two occasions had the good fortune to come across a clutch of three eggs thus
buried, in the second instance having seen the bird at work. A relative also
noticed that in another case one of the birds damped the sand round the eggs by
first wetting its breast at the water’s edge, and then running to squat down for a
couple of minutes. The action of the sun on the damp sand gives rise to a
bleaching process in the eggs, which in their regularly oval contour resemble those
of the cream-coloured courser.

THE PLOVER TRIBE.

Family CHARADRUDZ.

The rest of the more typical members of the order may be included in the
family Charadriide, of which the essential feature is that the rostrum on the
base of the skull is furnished with basipterygoid processes. This family may be
subdivided into three subfamilies, of which the first is represented by the plovers,

476 PLOVER GROCE,

dotterels, and lapwings. While agreeing with the pratincoles and coursers in having
the third and fourth toes connected by a web at the base, these short-billed birds
of the subfamily Charadriine differ in that the nostrils are situated in a groove

extending considerably in advance of the basal fourth of the beak.
The Ringed The plovers of the genus #gialitis and the two following genera
Plovers. may be distinguished from all other forms by the peculiar shape of
the beak, coupled with the circumstance that in the sharply-pointed wings the first
quill is the longest. As regards the beak, this, after tapering regularly for about
half its length, swells out suddenly both above and below near the tip. In this
character these birds resemble the lapwings, from which they are distinguished, not
only by a difference in the relative lengths of the quills of the wings, but likewise
by the circumstance that the two central tail-feathers are of a uniform brown colour
for more than two-thirds their

length, without any white at their
base, and also by the metatarsus
being reticulated. Of plovers in
eweneral, Mr. Seebohm writes that
they inhabit almost every descrip-

tion of country, “from the bare
mountain tops to the richly culti-
vated lands, the open moors and
commons, and the seashore. During
the breeding-season they are more
or less sociable, and in winter often

congregate in large flocks. They
run and walk with ease, and their
—— EEL flight is powerful, moderately quick,
EGS SGD and well sustained. Their usual

note is a loud and shrill whistle,

often considerably modulated, during the pairitig-season, into a not unmusical trill,
uttered as the bird takes a short flight in the air, after the manner of the pipits.”
All feed on insects, worms, molluscs, ete., and they nest either in some depression
on the ground, or on shingle or sand; while their eggs, like those of lapwings, are
generally four in number and of the well-known pear shape, with a ground-colour
of some shade of buff, upon which are brownish black blotches and streaks and
underlying markings of grey. The ringed plovers derive their name from the
dark ring or gorget round the neck of the majority of the species, a white
ring being also generally present above the dark one; but in one species this
only forms a collar on the back of the neck, and in another both are wanting.
Obviously, therefore, this dark ring (which is black in the breeding-dress of the
males) will not serve to characterise the genus. According to Mr. Seebohm, the
group may be best defined by the absence of the first toe, the dark transverse band
near the end of the tail-feathers, and the white abdomen and axillaries; the two
latter features serving to distinguish them from the three-toed dotterels, which also
have a dark band across the tail. The beak is always much shorter than the head,
and generally pale-coloured at the base; while the legs and feet are invariably of

PLOVERS. 477

a light tint. Moreover, while the central pair of tail-feathers have but very small
white tips, in the other feathers of that part the size of this white tip gradually
increases to the outermost one.

The ringed plovers include at least twelve species, which are distributed
over the greater part of the world except South America, although but poorly
represented in India and the adjacent countries during the breeding-season. The
majority frequent the banks of rivers and lakes, rather than the coast, laying their
egos in a mere hollow of the ground. The prettily coloured common ringed plover
(4. hiaticula), of which there is a larger and a smaller race,—the former more
common in the British Islands and adjacent parts of Kurope,—belongs to a group
of the genus in which the central half of the outer webs of the innermost primaries
is white; while it is specially characterised by the whole of the under-parts being
white, with the exception of the lores and a single broad band across the breast
both of which are black in adult males; and also by the web between the third
and fourth toes extending only to their first joints. In length it varies from 8 to 7
inches. The larger race is the only one definitely known to breed in Britain, while
the smaller one breeds in Greenland, Iceland, Novaia Zemlia, ete., as well as in
Western Siberia, Turkestan, and North Africa; in summer it visits the greater
part of Europe northward of the Alps, and in winter it spreads over the basin
of the Mediterranean and Africa. In North America it is represented by the half-
webbed ringed plover (4. semipalmata), differing by the web between the third
and fourth toes extending to their second joints, and likewise by the presence of a
shorter web between the second and third toes. The little rmged plover (4. minor),
which is an occasional visitor to Britain, and breeds over the greater part of Europe
and Asia north of the Himalaya, wintering in India and Africa, may be taken as
an example of the second group of smaller species characterised by the dark outer
webs of the inner primaries. It is specially distinguished by the scapulars being
coloured like the back, and by the outer tail-feathers being less than a quarter of
an inch shorter than the central pair, the latter feature distinguishing it from
Hodgson’s ringed plover (4. placida) of India. In length this species is 64
inches, but a resident Indian variety is smaller. Another well-known representative
of the first group is the American kill-deer plover (4. vocifera), which measures
from 9 to 10 inches in length, and is characterised by the chestnut-buff colour of
the lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts. In England the breeding-season of
the common ringed plover commences in March, and the flocks which have collected
during the winter begin to break up into pairs; the eggs are not, however, laid till
April, May, or June, and have been found as late as August. When their breeding-
grounds are visited, the birds exhibit but little anxiety, as their protective coloration
renders the eggs very difficult of detection.

The Sand- The sand-plovers, as typically represented by the Kentish plover
Flovers. = CXgialophilus cantianus), while agreeing with the ringed plovers in

the absence of the first toe, and their white abdomen, are distinguished by the lack
of a distinct dark band near the end of the tail-feathers, and also by the white
bases of the outer webs of the innermost primary quills; the latter feature forming
a white wing-patch somewhat similar to that occurring in the common ringed
plover and its allies, although smaller. There are some twenty species of sand-

473 PLOVER GROUP.

plovers, distributed over the greater part of the world except the Arctic regions,
but more numerous in the Southern than the Northern Hemisphere. The Kentish
plover, which breeds on the shores of Kent and Sussex, as well as on the coasts of
the seas and salt-lakes of a great portion of Europe and Asia, visiting India and
Africa in winter, may be recognised by the white collar round the neck, the dark
patch on each side of the breast, the presence of a white area on the central portion
of the shaft of the third primary quill, and the black legs; the length varying from
6 to 7 inches. Beyond the circumstance that they are all shore-birds, mainly
frequenting open stretches of sand, upon which the eggs are laid, there is nothing
calling for notice in the habits of this genus. The wry-billed plover (4. front-
alis), of New Zealand, is unique in having the beak bent on one side.
True Plovers By many ornithologists the dotterels are regarded as belonging
and Dotterels. to a genus (Hudromias) distinct from that containing the true plovers,
but this is not the view adopted by Mr. Seebohm; and, as we are in the main
following his system, we will here rank them with the plovers (Charadrius). The
black under-parts of the dotterels appear indeed to exhibit relationship with some
of the true plovers; this affinity being confirmed by the coloration of the eggs and
the mode of nesting in the two groups. Nevertheless, the inclusion of all these
forms in a single genus renders its definition a somewhat difficult matter. Having
the general characters common to all the plovers, the members of the present genus
may be recognised, according to Mr. Seebohm, by the possession of either one or two
of the following features, namely, coloured axillaries, the presence of the first toe,
a barred tail, or a dark patch on the abdomen. The beak may be rather longer
than in the ringed plovers, but in both groups there are twelve feathers in the tail.
Whereas, however, the majority of the species (about a dozen in number) agree with
the two preceding genera in the absence of the first toe, that digit 1s present in
four members of the genus. The group is most numerously represented during
the breeding-season in the Arctic region, although some species nest in Temperate
Europe and Asia, and others in Australia and South America; while during
the winter these birds are dispersed over the greater portion of the globe.
Unlike the members of the two preceding groups, the true plovers and dotterels
inhabit open plains, mountains, and the Siberian tundras, as well as the shores of
seas and lakes, and in this respect resemble their cousins the lapwings. In con-
structing slight nests for the reception of their four eggs, they likewise differ from
the foregoing members of the family.
The handsome and well-known bird termed the golden plover
(C. pluvialis) is the typical representative, not only of the true plovers,
but likewise of the entire genus and family. The true plovers, in which the first
toe may be absent or present, are collectively characterised by the barred tails of
the adults, the black under-parts in the breeding-dress, and the minute reticulation
of the scales of the metatarsus. The golden plover, which attains a length of from
10 to 11 inches, is specially characterised by having but three toes, all the tail-
feathers barred, and the axillaries white. In the breeding-dress of the adult male
the upper-parts are nearly black, spotted with yellow; the forehead, a stripe above
the eye, the sides of the neck, the axillaries, thighs, flanks, and under tail-coverts
being white, with some dusky mottling; while the lores, chin, throat, breast, and

Plovers.

DOLPE REELS. 479

abdomen are black. The beak and legs are nearly black, and the iris is dark hazel.
In the female the white parts have more dusky mottlings, and the dark under areas
are browner, with some white feathers. Breeding locally in Britain and some
other districts of North-Western Europe, this species has its chief nesting-haunts
on the fjelds of Norway and the Russian and Siberian tundras; while in winter it
frequents the shores of the Mediterranean, whence it wanders as far south as the
Cape. To the east of the Yenesei it is replaced by the Asiatic golden plover (C.
fulvus), distinguished by its grey axillaries; this species wintering in India,
Australia, and the intermediate regions, and being replaced in America by a
variety whose breeding-grounds are in the northern half of that continent. The
second British representative of the group is the grey plover (C. helveticus), which
is a rather larger bird, easily distinguished by the presence of a small first toe and
the black axillaries ; its breeding-range comprising the cireumpolar tundras beyond
the forest regions, and its winter range including Southern Europe, Africa, India,
Japan, Australia, Brazil, and Peru. It resembles the golden plover in undergoing
a marked seasonal change of plumage.

The golden plover, whose habits may be taken as typical of those of the group,
is a bird of powerful and sustained flight, flying when in flocks in a more or less
wedge-shaped formation, and wheeling in the air, especially before pitching on the
ground, in a peculiarly graceful manner. On the ground it is also equally active,
running and walking with speed, and frequently wading breast-deep in the shallows.
Frequenting in summer the open moors, heaths, and tundras, in winter it resorts to
low-lying marshes, meadows near the sea, and flat coasts; while its Asiatic ally is
at that time frequently to be seen on the marshy lakes (jhils) of India. To a
certain extent gregarious, even in the breeding-season, the golden plover collects in
immense flocks in autumn preparatory to its migration, and during the latter period
moves in companies which may be numbered by thousands, Mr. C. Dixon stating
that, towards the end of October and beginning of November, he has known these
birds “ fly over from Continental Europe in almost one incessant stream, the flocks
succeeding one another so quickly as to form a nearly unbroken throng.” This
plover feeds largely by night, but the nature of its food naturally varies somewhat
with its seasonal change of habit, in summer consisting largely of insects, and in
winter mainly of various small aquatic animals. In Britain the breeding-season
commences about the middle of May, the nest being formed of dry herbage, with
scraps of heath and moss, and situated either in a hole in the ground, on a tuft of
herbage, under the shelter of a bunch of cotton-grass, or, more rarely, among short
grass or heath. The eggs are very like those of the lapwing, from which they may
be distinguished by their superior size, the absence of olive in their markings, and
their brighter colour. The parent birds are adepts in the art of inveigling away
the intruder from the neighbourhood of their eggs or young, the latter scattering
themselves in all directions at the first alarm, to seek protection by skulking among
the surrounding herbage.

The dotterels, of which the typical forms have but three toes,
and, as already said, are frequently separated under the name of
Eudromias, are smaller birds, forming a somewhat heterogeneous group, with but
few distinctive common characters, although none of them have the tail barred.

Dotterels.

480 PLOVIER (GROOLs

The common dotterel, which attains a length of 9 inches, is one of the species
resembling the typical plovers in having the abdomen of the adult in the breeding-
plumage black, and may be recognised by this feature, coupled with the rich
chestnut hue of the lower breast at the same season, the grey axillaries, and the
circumstance that the beak is shorter than the third toe without the claw; the
two latter features serving to distinguish this prettily-marked bird at all seasons.
Although both sexes are not very much unlike, the female is somewhat the larger
and handsomer of the two, being brighter coloured, and having more black on the
abdomen; but in both there is the same white crescent, narrowly bordered with
black, on the breast. The dotterel chiefly breeds on the northern tundras, beyond
the limits of forest, of Europe and Asia, although a few nest in the northern

parts of Britain, while it winters in Palestine, Egypt, and North Africa; a few
individuals remaining on the northern border of the Mediterranean, An allied
form is the Oriental dotterel (C. veredus), which breeds in Mongolia, and winters
in the countries from Java to Australia; this species being distinguished by its
shorter third toe, and the white abdomen in the summer dress. “The dotterel,”
observes Mr. Seebohm, “is essentially a bird of the fallows, and where there is no
cultivated land it picks out the dry, bare places on which to feed. It avoids the
swamps, and is seldom or never seen on the banks of rivers or lakes. The seashore
has no attractions for the dotterel, nor does it seem to care for pasture; but it
loves to trip amongst clods of earth, and seeks its food on the bare mountain-sides.
There it is very tame, and is easier to approach than any other species of plover
with which I am acquainted.” From this tameness the bird derives its title—the
name “dotterel” signifying a foolish or dull person. Dotterels migrate in even
greater numbers than the true plovers, and from the circumstance that out of the
tens of thousands that pass in spring from Africa to the Arctic tundras scarcely
any are seen to alight in the intervening countries, it is surmised that this
tremendous journey is accomplished in the course of a single night. Dotterels
formerly bred in the neighbourhood of Carlisle. The nest is merely a slight
hollow in the ground, or among moss or grass, in which three eggs are deposited.
Curiously enough, the male dotterel takes by far the larger share in the work of
incubation and rearing the young; this being not unfrequently the case in those
rare instances where the female is superior in size and brilliancy of coloration to
her lord and master. The reason for such a total change in the relations of the
two sexes remains, however, a complete mystery.

The three members of this group in which the first toe remains are the
Falkland Island dotterel (C. modestus), the Magellanic plover (C. soczabilis), and
the Australian four-toed dotterel (CL rufiventris).

Closely allied to the plovers are the birds commonly known as
lapwings or green plovers, some of the distinctive features of which
have been already noticed on p. 476. These birds differ from the plovers in having
at least the basal third of the middle pair of tail-feathers white; by the wings,
which may or may not be armed with a spur, being blunt, with the first and

Lapwings.

second quills shorter than the third and fourth, which are of nearly equal
length; and by the front of the metatarsus being covered with large scutes,
instead of small reticulated scales. The head is often provided with a crest.

LAPWINGS. 481

The first toe may or may not be present, and the presence or absence of
that toe affords grounds for dividing the group into two sections, which some
writers (whom we follow) consider worthy of generic distinction; the four-toed
types being termed Vanellus, while those with but three toes are designated
Hoplopterus. About fourteen species of lapwings are generally recognised; these
being distributed over the temperate and tropical portions of Europe, Asia,
Africa, and South America. These birds derive their common English name from
their slow and flapping flight, which is at the same time graceful, and often very
erratic. In general habits they closely resemble the plovers, but most of them are
gregarious at all seasons, and in summer their favourite haunts are open downs,

COMMON LAPWING (4 nat. size).

moors, fallows, or marshy commons, although some kinds seek the neighbourhood
of the coast in winter. Partially nocturnal, their food comprises insects, worms,
and molluses; and their well-known cries are loud and frequently melancholy in
tone. Their nesting-habits and eggs are similar to those of the plovers.

Four-Toed The common lapwing (Vanellus cristatus) is the typical repre-

Lapwings. sentative of its genus, and such a familiar bird as to need but little in
the way of description. Belonging to a group in which there is no spur on the
wing, this species is specially distinguished by the combination of a metallic lustre
on the green plumage of the upper-parts, and the absence of white on the wing-
coverts; while it is also the only member of the two genera in which both the
upper and under tail-coverts are chestnut-buff. The crest is of great length. This
handsome bird has the widest geographical range of any of the lapwings, extending

VOL. IV.—31

482 PLOVER GROUP.

from Britain to Japan, and also occurring on the two sides of the American
Continent in Alaska and Greenland; while in winter it migrates as far south as
Northern Africa, Persia, and India. Resident throughout the year in the British
Islands, in the Arctic regions of Scandinavia and the tundras of Siberia it is but
a summer visitor. Not only is this bird the most widely distributed member of
the genus, but the species is probably the one most numerous in individuals, as is
attested by the enormous number of its eggs which reach the English market
where they form by far the greater proportion of those sold as plovers’ eggs.
When associated in their enormous winter flocks, lapwings are among the most
difficult of birds to approach, more especially from their constant habit of changing
their ground. When the breeding-place is approached, the old bird, writes Mr.
Seebohm, “ glides steadily off the nest, runs a little distance, then rises in the air
to flutter restlessly above the intruder’s head, uttering its harsh, wailing cries.
So closely do the eggs resemble surrounding objects in colour that it is no easy
task to find them; but the old birds very often betray their whereabouts by
hovering above them; at these times the birds are easily approached, often coming
within a few feet. When the young are hatched, they soon follow their parents
in search of food. If menaced by danger, the old birds quit their offspring at once,
fly into the air, or reel and tumble along the ground as if wounded, while the
nestlings scurry off in different directions and hide themselves among the herbage.”
As an example of a species of this genus we may refer to the Cayenne lapwing
(V. cayennensis), and its variety the Patagonian lapwing, in which the crest is very
small. These birds, which are known in the pampas by the name of teru-teru,
generally live in pairs, and have a curious habit of indulging frequently in a kind
of dance or march, which is described by Mr. W. H. Hudson. This observer writes
that anyone watching a pair of these birds, will see an individual from another
pair rise and fly to them. Advancing to receive their visitor, the pair place them-
selves behind it; “then all three, keeping step, begin a rapid, uttering, resonant
drumming note, in time with their movements; the notes of the pair behind being
emitted in a stream, like a drum-roll, while the leader utters loud single notes at
regular intervals. The march ceases; the leader elevates his wings and stands
erect and motionless, still uttering loud notes; while the other two, with puffed-out
plumage and standing exactly abreast, stoop forward and downward until the tips
of their beaks touch the ground, and, sinking their rhythmical voices to a murmur,
remain for some time in this posture. The performance is then over, and the
visitor goes back to his own ground and mate, to receive a visitor himself later
on.” For the truthfulness of these observations the present writer can vouch
from personal experience. On the pampas these lapwings are a perfect nuisance,
dashing up during the breeding-season almost into the face of the traveller, and
then suddenly wheeling off with a sudden swoop, at the same time giving vent to
their harsh and monotonous ery of teru-teru. This extreme boldness, and perfect
fearlessness of man, is however, as was long ago remarked by Darwin, characteristic
of most of the birds of the Argentine pampas.
Three-Toed Of the three-toed lapwings, among which there are some species
Lapwings. with a wing-spur and others without the same, while the presence
of a crest is likewise inconstant, we select as the best known example the Egyptian

LAPWINGS. 483

spur-winged lapwing (Hoplopterus armatus), which breeds in the valley of the
Nile, in Senegambia, and probably also in the intervening districts of Central
Africa, migrating in the spring to Palestine and some parts of South-
Eastern Europe. It has large spurs, and may be distinguished from its allies
by the greater wing-coverts being white, and the lesser ones brown; and it is
also unique in having, when adult, the crown of the head, forehead, nape, chin,
throat, breast, flanks, and legs, black. This bird is extremely common in Egypt
and Nubia, where it frequents the banks of lakes, rivers, and canals, as well as
marshes and swamps. The chief interest connected with this species is that it

EGYPTIAN SPUR-WINGED LAPWING (4 nat. size).

appears to be the bird alluded to by Herodotus as being in the habit of entering
the open mouths of crocodiles for the purpose of feeding. For a long time it was
considered that the black-backed courser was the bird in question, and that the
whole story wasamyth. The late Dr. Leith Adams gave, however, good reasons
for regarding the zic-zac (as this bird is called by the natives) as being really
the kind alluded to, while the recent observations of Mr. J. M. Cook strongly
confirm the original story. The narrative of the latter gentlemen, in a somewhat
condensed form, is as follows :—“ Early in 1876,” he writes, “I was on the Nile,
between the first and second cataracts, and noticed on a large sandbank some
crocodiles of considerable size, and several of the birds which are called by all the
natives the crocodile-bird. As we had plenty of time, I decided that we would
spend a few hours in watching the crocodiles and the crocodile-birds. For this

484 PLOVER GROUP.

purpose, during the dark hours we had a small pit dug on the western side of the
large sandbank, and about the peep of day the following morning we ensconced
ourselves in the pit, with the intention of remaining until the crocodiles came on
to the bank, as we believed they did every day, to bask in the sunshine and sleep.
We watched patiently until about noon, when two large crocodiles came out of the
water on to the bank, and apparently were soon asleep. Several crocodile-birds
commenced flitting over them; and through our field-glasses we watched one bird,
and saw it deliberately go up to a crocodile, apparently asleep, which opened its
jaws. The bird hopped in, and the crocodile closed its jaws. In what appeared to
be a very short time, probably not more than a minute or two, the crocodile
opened its jaws, and we saw the crocodile-bird go down to the water's edge. As
the sandbank was, I should say, at least half a mile across, and the bird’s back
was turned towards us, we could not see whether it vomited in the water or drank,
but in the course of a few seconds it returned to the crocodile, which opened its
mouth again, and the bird again entered. The mouth was closed, and in a short
time was opened again for the bird to come out, and the same operation was
repeated at the river bank. We saw the same bird enter the crocodile’s mouth
three times, and on three occasions run to the water to either vomit or drink.
Having satisfied our curiosity, and knowing that we could not bag the crocodile,
and there being two or three crocodile-birds about, I took aim and shot two of
them. I could not assert positively that I shot the actual bird that we had seen
go in and out of the crocodile’s mouth, but one of the birds was presented to the
Leicester Museum, and the other I have in a case at home.” The so-called
crocodile -bird was subsequently identified with the present species.
Wattled That cordially hated Indian bird the did-he-do-it (so called
Lapwings. from its cry, which alarms all worthier game in its neighbourhood),
or red-wattled lapwing (Lobivanellus indicus), may be taken to represent a large
group of species inhabiting the warmer parts of the Old World, all of which are
distinguished from the members of the two preceding genera by the presence of a
fleshy lobe or wattle between the eye and the beak. Like the other lapwings,
they may be divided into two groups, according to the number of the toes; the
four-toed species constituting the genus Lobivanellus, while those in which the
first toe is absent are separated as Sarciophorus; the Indian yellow-wattled
lapwing (S. bilobus) being a familiar example of the latter group. The red-wattled
species, frequently termed the bronze-winged mottled lapwing, which may be
distinguished by the broad white band at the end of the tail, ranges from Southern
Persia and Baluchistan all over India and Ceylon, where it is one of the commonest
of birds; while in Gilgit, and probably Kashmir, it occurs only as a summer
visitor. To the east of the Bay of Bengal it is replaced by a variety differing by
having a white collar on the back of the neck behind the black of the head and
fore-neck. As there is nothing particularly noteworthy in the habits of these
lapwings, we pass on to the consideration of the second subfamily.
The beautiful, long-legged birds known as stilts and avocets are
our first representatives of the Totanin, or second subfamily of the
group under consideration, all the members of which are characterised by the

Stilts.

nostrils being situated in the basal fourth of the more or less elongated beak, and

SUOIGIES 485

by at least the third and fourth toes being united at their bases by a membrane.
The genera of this subfamily are largely characteristic of the Arctic and Temperate
regions of the globe; the great majority having a circumpolar distribution.

The stilts, or stilt-plovers (Himantopus), derive their title from the extreme
elongation of their slender legs, which recall those of the jacanas and_parras.
Belonging to a group of four genera, collectively characterised by the metatarsus
being reticulated on all sides, the stilts are specially distinguished by the length
of the metatarsus, which is equal to or greater than that of the long, slender, and
nearly straight beak, by the absence of the first toe, the slight webbing of the
front toes, and the black plumage of the upper-parts. The wings of these birds
are long and pointed, with the first quill the longest; the tail is rounded: a large
portion of the tibia is bare; and the bill is slightly curved upwards at the point,
with the nostrils at the sides of its base slit-like in form. The genus includes six
well-defined species and a
variety, which are distri-
buted over Southern
Europe and Asia, Africa,
Australasia, and a con-
siderable part of America,
although wanting in the
northern regions of that
continent. A_ single
species, the black-winged
stilt (1. candidus), which
is an occasional visitor to
Britain, inhabits Southern

E ] | li HEAD OF CHILIAN STILT.
urope, and may be dis- (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1873.)
tinguished from its allies

by having in the adult condition the whole of the head and neck white, although
immature examples have some black on the crown of the head and back of the
neck. In the adult male, which measures from 13 to 14 inches in length, the
upper-parts and wings are black, glossed with green on the back; the upper tail-
coverts and tail are pearly grey; while the whole of the rest of the plumage is
pure white; the beak being black, and the iris, legs, and feet crimson. Resident
in India, this bird visits Burma in the winter, and straggles as far east as New
Zealand; while in summer it resorts to Southern Europe, and is found at all
seasons in many parts of Africa. One of its nearest allies is the Australian
stilt (H. leucocephalus), in which the back of the neck is black, with a white
collar separating it from the dark area of the black. Of the South American
species, the Chilian stilt (H. brasiliensis), which winters in Brazil, has the black
of the neck extending forwards beneath the eye.

Stilts are essentially marsh-birds, although they always keep to open water,
in which they may be seen standing up to their knees on the look-out for insects,
molluses, tadpoles, etc.; their most favourite resorts being lagoons, where the water
is brackish. They are generally found in small parties, and whether on land, in
the water, or in the air, are remarkable for their graceful appearance. They walk

486 PLOVER GROUP.

with a deliberate step, which may be quickened into a run; and they fly straight
but slowly, with the neck outstretched and the long legs extended beyond the tail.
Ordinarily silent and far from shy, in the breeding-season these birds utter a ery
resembling the syllables, kit, kot, kit, and are most assiduous in endeavouring to
lure the intruder away from the vicinity of their nests. In India stilts breed in
enormous numbers, laying most of their eggs in June, although in Spain they are
at least a month earlier; one of the favourite haunts being some salt-works near
Delhi, where the brine is distributed in shallow pools over acres of ground. The
nest varies according to the nature of the locality, being more bulky in moist

AVOCETS (} nat. size).

situations, and sometimes even floating on the water. The four eggs are pear-
shaped, and of a buffish brown ground-colour, upon which are blackish brown
streaks and blotches, with underlying markings of grey.

Although closely connected with the stilts by two aberrant
species, it seems on the whole convenient to separate the still more
graceful avocets as a genus, under the title of Recwrvirostra, the sole distinctive
character applicable to all the members being the more fully webbed feet. In the
more typical forms, however, such as the common avocet (R. avocetta), the beak is
strongly curved upwards at the extremity, the webbed feet are furnished with a
small first toe, and the plumage of the upper-parts is pied. The connection with

Avocets.

OVSTPRCCATGHEERS. 487

the stilts is formed in one way by the Peruvian avocet (R. andina), in which the
plumage of the upper-parts is black; and in another by the banded avocet (R.
pectoralis), in which, while the plumage is pied, the beak is straight, and the first
toe wanting. The avocets include five species, having much the same distribution
as the stilts, with the exception that none breed in India or the adjacent countries.
The common avocet, which was formerly a frequent visitor to the fenny districts
of England, is characterised in the adult dress by the black upper surface of the
head and hinder part of the neck, and the white innermost secondaries; the young
birds in their first plumage have the dark parts of the plumage brown, and the
secondaries barred with white. The total length of the bird is 18 inches. Owing
to drainage, the European breeding-places of the avocet are now restricted to
certain islands off Denmark and Holland, the marshes of Southern Spain, the delta
of the Rhone, and the lagoons of the Black Sea; but to the eastwards it nests in
Palestine, Persia, Turkestan, the south-west of Siberia, ete., and also in Africa. In
winter these birds resort to India, China, and, more rarely, Japan; and they reach
their European breeding-places in April and May, and depart in September. The
North American avocet (R. americana), ranging from the Great Slave Lake to
Texas, differs at all seasons by its white secondaries, and in the breeding-plumage
by the pale chestnut hue of the head and neck. The habits of the avocets are so
similar to those of stilts, that one account will serve for both ; and we may accord-
ingly close our notice with the following description of the appearance of a colony
of these birds on the Arkansas, observed by Dr. Coues. “The avocets,” he writes,
“walked leisurely about, up to the belly in water, with graceful, deliberate steps,
each of which was accompanied by a swaying of the head and neck. When
approached too closely, they rose lightly from the water, uttering their peculiar
cries, flapped leisurely to a little distance, and again alighted to pursue their
peaceful search for food, forgetting, or at least not heeding, their recent alarm. As
they rose from the water, their singular long legs were allowed to dangle for a few
moments, but were afterwards stretched stiffly backwards, as a counterpoise to their
long necks ; and, thus balanced, their light bodies were supported with the greatest
ease by their ample wings. When about to re-alight, they sailed without flapping
for a little distance, just clearing the water, their legs again hanging loosely; as
they touched the ground, their long wings were held almost upright for an instant,
then deliberately folded, and settled in place with a few slight motions.”

Much more stoutly built, and with shorter and thicker neck and
legs than the stilts, the oyster-catchers, or sea-pies, may be diagnosed
by the metatarsus being inferior in length to the nearly straight and rather thick
beak. The long and pointed wings extend, when closed, to about the extremity of
the squared tail; the beak is somewhat compressed and truncate at the tip, with
considerable specific variation in outline; but a small portion of the tibia is bare ;
the reticulated metatarsus is short and stout; and the first toe is wanting. The
common oyster-catcher (Hematopus ostralegus), which is a resident in the British
Isles, is the typical representative of the genus, and while four other species
resemble it in their pied plumage, the remaining two are black. The distribution
of the genus is almost world-wide. Agreeing with all the other Old World forms
in its dull crimson-red legs, the European species is specially characterised by the

Oyster-Catchers.

488 PLOVER GROUP.

lower part of the back, rump, and upper tail-coverts being white, and by the white
pattern on the primaries being well marked on the outer webs of the fourth and
fifth quills of that series. In this species the beak and region round the eye are
orange; all the upper-parts are black, with the exception of the lower-back, rump,
and upper tail-coverts, the basal portion of the tail-feathers, and a band across the
wing comprising the greater wing-coverts and some of the secondaries, which are
white; the primaries being also more or less marked with the latter colour. With
the exception of the chin, throat, breast, and a few of the wing-coverts, all the
under-parts are white. In length, this bird varies from 16 to 17 inches. Migratory
in many districts, this species inhabits the whole of Europe, and a considerable

COMMON OYSTER-CATCHER (4 nat. size),

portion of the eastern half of Asia, as well as North Africa; ranging to the Arctic
Circle, and visiting Western India in winter. In J apan, Northern China, Amur-
land, ete., it is replaced by the Japanese oyster-catcher (H. osculans), distinguished
by its long beak, and the white on the primaries not appearing till the sixth quill;
while in the New World its place is taken by the American oyster-catcher (H.
palleatus), in which (as in all the New World species) the legs are pale flesh-
coloured, while the upper-parts below the black neck are, with the exception of the
greater wing-coverts and tail-coverts, brown instead of black. The black species
are the Australian black oyster-catcher (H. wnicolor), represented by a variety in
Africa; and the American black oyster-catcher (H. niger), characterised by the

CURLEWS. #80

great compression of its large beak, which in the South American race tends to
curve upwards at the tip.

Mainly coast-birds, although frequently ascending rivers for a long distance
inland, oyster-catchers derive their name from their habit of feeding largely upon
bivalve molluscs, the shells of which their compressed beaks are admirably adapted
for prising open. The same efficient instrument serves for detaching limpets
from their hold on rocks, and extracts marine worms and other creatures
from their burrows in the sand.

Ibis-Billed Nearly allied to the members of this genus is a remarkable bird
Oyster-Catcher. from Central Asia (Jbidorhynchus struthersi) distinguished by the
beak being curved down in the manner of that of an ibis. The beak and feet are
red, the front of the head black, and the general tone of the remainder of the
plumage olive.

Curlews and Although evidently related to the preceding genera, the curlews

Whimbrels. belong to the second section of the subfamily, in which, at least for
the lower portion of its front half,
the metatarsus is covered with large
scutes ; and they are defined by this
feature, coupled with the circum-
stance that the long beak is so
arched that the chord drawn from
the base to the tip will pass below
the inferior border of the lower
mandible. The curlews have moder-
ately long and slender necks, with
the beak generally longer than the
metatarsus, although this is not the
ease with the Eskimo whinbrel
(Numenius borealis) and the least
whimbrel (N. minutus). In the
legs a large portion of the tibia is
devoid of feathers, and there is a
small first toe. As a rule, only the
lower portion of the front of the
metatarsus is covered with scutes;
but in the least whimbrel this segment of the leg is thus protected on all sides.
The wings are moderate and pointed, with the first quill the longest, and the tail
is squared. The plumage is coloured with various shades of brown and buff, pro-
ducing a mottled appearance, recalling that of the thicknees, and is evidently adapted
for protective resemblance. With the exception of the two species above mentioned,
all the curlews have pale bars on the inner webs of their primary quills. Curlews
are represented by nine species, two of which have well-marked local varieties ; and
during the breeding-season are confined to North America, Europe, North Africa,
and Asia north of the Himalaya, although in winter they have a cosmopolitan range.

The common European curlew (NV. arquatus) is a large bird
measuring from 21 to 26 inches in length, which may be diagnosed

COMMON CURLEW.

Various Species.

490 PLOVER TRIBE.

by its metatarsus exceeding 8 inches in length, and by the lower back and
rump being much paler in colour than the remainder of the upper-parts. In the
breeding-plumage of the adult male the general hue of the upper-parts is pale
brown, shading into white on the wing-coverts, each feather having a dark brown
centre; the under-parts are white, tinged on the neck and breast with pale brown,
where the feathers are also streaked with dark brown. The rump is white;
the upper tail-coverts are white or whitish, streaked or barred with brown; the
quills dark brown with white bars; and the tail-feathers white or whitish with
dark brown bars. The beak is dark brown, and the legs and feet are slaty grey.
This species is resident in the British Islands, whence it extends as far east as the
Caspian, beyond which the typical form is replaced by a paler variety; which
ranges into Eastern Siberia and Amurland. The breeding-range extends from
the confines of the Arctic Circle to Holland; and while the migratory individuals
of the European form pass the winter in Africa, the Oriental variety is met with
at that season in India. The whimbrel (VY. phwopus) is a smaller bird than the
curlew, measuring only 16 to 18 inches, and having a relatively shorter beak ; and
may be distinguished, in common with some other species, by the crown of the
head being of a uniform pale brown colour, with a lighter median longitudinal
streak ; its distinctive specific characteristic being that the lower portion of the
back is much lighter than the rest of the upper-parts. Although a more northern
species than the curlew, not breeding in the British Islands south of the Orkneys
and Shetlands, the distribution of the whimbrel is very similar; the common form
being replaced in Eastern Asia by a.variety which winters in India and Australia.
The nearly allied American whimbrel (VN. hudsonianus), whose winter-range
extends to Patagonia, differs by the chestnut axillaries and under wing-coverts,
and the similarity in the colour of all the upper-parts. The still smaller Eskimo
whimbrel (V. borealis), which breeds in Arctic America, and occasionally strageles
during migration to Britain, differs by the absence of barring on the primary quills ;
while the least whimbrel (V. minutus), which breeds in Eastern Siberia and
winters in Malayana and Australia, may be distinguished from the latter by the
metatarsus being covered with scutes both in front and behind.

All the members of the genus are of very similar habits, fre-
quenting moors, inland marshes, and uplands during the summer, and
seeking the coasts more while on migration and during the winter. Even more
wary than the oyster-catchers, curlews take wing at the least alarm, and rarely
allow themselves to be approached within gunshot range. Whenever alarmed,
they utter their well-known piercing cry as they rise in the air; and these weird
notes, especially when a whole flock of birds join in the chorus, may be heard at
great distances across the moors. Gregarious in winter, the birds break up into
pairs in the spring; and in the breeding-season lay, in a slight nest on the ground,
four somewhat pear-shaped eggs, of which the ground-colour is olive-green, marked
with spots of brown and grey. In summer, the food of the European species
consists of insects, larvee, and worms, sometimes supplemented with berries; but
in winter it is largely composed of small marine crustaceans and molluses.
Although generally so shy and wary, in the breeding-season curlews are far bolder ;
and when the young are hatched, both parent birds will often fly anxiously round

Habits.

PHALAROPES. 491

and round the head of any intruder on their domain. Geologically these birds are
known to date from the period of the middle Miocene, remains of small species
having been obtained from strata of that age in France; and it is not improbable
that they date from the still older upper Eocene beds of the Paris basin.

The three species of phalarope, two of which are met with in
Britain, are readily distinguished from other members of the family
by the sides of the three front toes being provided with lobe-like expansions, some-
what similar to those of the coots, and likewise by the marked lateral compression
of the metatarsus, which is covered with scutes on both aspects. The beak is of
medium length, straight, somewhat depressed and relatively weak, with the oval
nostrils at its base surrounded by an elevated rim. The first toe, although small,
is present, and a small portion of the tibia is bare. In the elongated and pointed
wings the first quill exceeds all the
others in length, and the short tail = eee
is of a somewhat rounded form. ==
The plumage, like that of the
avocets, is remarkable for its softness.
During the breeding -season these
birds are confined to the northern
regions of Europe, Asia, and America,
two being inhabitants of the circum-
polar regions, while the third pertains
to the Western Hemisphere. They
are all more aquatic in their habits
than any other members of the
family, and chiefly frequent deeply
indented coasts, although also found
on the shores of inland lakes. In GREY PHALAROPE,
general appearance they approach
the sandpipers, but they have shorter legs; and the females are more brightly
coloured than the males.

The grey phalarope (Phalaropus fulicarius), which is but an irregular visitor
to the British Islands, attains a length of 8 inches, and is remarkable for the differ-
ence in the colour of the winter and summer plumage of the under-parts. The
“species may be recognised at all seasons by the comparative shortness and width
of the beak, and by the central tail-feathers exceeding the outermost in width by
half an inch. In the breeding-plumage the whole of the under-parts are of a rich
chestnut, and the back and rump black; but in winter most of the upper-parts, as
well as a patch before the point of the wings, are pearly grey, while the under-
parts are pure white. Breeding im the cireumpolar regions locally, but nowhere
in Continental Europe, this species occasionally visits North Africa in winter, and
has been recorded from New Zealand and Chili. The slightly smaller red-necked
phalarope (P. hyperboreus), which has likewise a circumpolar distribution, although
breeding locally in the Shetlands, Orkneys, and Outer Hebrides, may be recognised
by the tapering and pointed beak, which (like that of the preceding) does not
exceed an inch in length, and likewise by the smaller difference between the

The Phalaropes.

492 PLOVER LERIBE.

lengths of the central and outer tail-feathers. The chief breeding-haunts are
beyond the limits of forest; but in winter this species spreads over Europe,
Northern India, the Malayan region, China, New Guinea, Mexico, and Central
America. Finally, Wilson’s phalarope (P wilsoni), which breeds on the great
lakes of North America, and migrates in winter as far south as Patagonia, differs
from both the others in the greater length of its slender tapering bill, which
exceeds an inch.
The Hard-Billed The term sandpiper being a general one, applied collectively to
Sandpipers and many members of the family, it is necessary to prefix the term hard-
Ruts. billed to those of which we have now to treat. These birds are
specially characterised by the nearly straight beak, and by the feathers of the

RUFFS AND REEVES,

forehead extending in advance of the angle of the gape. In length the beak is
moderate, and it has its tip hard, and the nostrils slit-like and lateral. The first
toe is always present; and the metatarsus (except in a Pacific species where they
are absent from the greater portion of the back) is covered with scutes both before
and behind; and some portion of the tibia is bare. In the long and pointed wings
the first quill is the longest; but there is considerable variation in the form and
number of the tail-feathers, which in the great majority of species are barred.
The genus comprises about a score of species, of which a large moiety are repre-
sented in the British Islands, and throughout the breeding-season are distributed
over the boreal and temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, but in winter
become collectively cosmopolitan. Frequenting moors, marshes, and tundras during
the breeding-season, these familiar and pretty little birds resort to the sea-coasts
in the winter throughout many portions of their range and are in the habit of

GODWITS. 493

performing migrations of enormous length. Their food consists of insects,
crustaceans, and molluscs, supplemented by fruit; and their shrill, piping notes are
among the most familiar sounds of the seashore. More or less gregarious and
social in their habits, especially in the winter, with the single exception of the
ruff, all are monogamous; and their scanty nests are usually placed on the ground,
and contain, at the proper season, four pear-shaped spotted eggs. Among the
better-known British forms are the common sandpiper (Zotanus hypoleucus),
the green sandpiper (7. ochropus), the redshank (7. calidris), the greenshank
(T. glottis), and the ruff (7. pugnaz).

This last is a remarkable and interesting species, characterised by the
periodical assumption by the males of a large ruff round the neck, which is
scarcely ever exactly similar in any two individuals; the general plumage of
that sex being likewise very variable at the same season. The immature males
and females resemble an ordinary sandpiper; but they may always be recognised
by their white axillaries, coupled with the absence of any white on the quills
and central upper tail-coverts. In length the male measures about 12 inches
and the female some 2 inches less. Formerly common in the English marshes, the
ruff is now mainly a passing visitor to Britain, its breeding-haunts range from
the most northern lands of Europe and Asia as far south as the valley of the
Danube and the Kirghiz Steppes, while in winter it wanders as far as the Cape,
Northern India, Burma, and even more remote regions. Next to the extraordinary
variation in the character of the plumage, the most interesting features about the
ruff are the extreme pugnacity displayed by the cocks, and the circumstance
that these birds differ from all their kin in being polygamous—the females largely
exceeding the males in number. During the pairing-season the cocks congregate
at certain spots known as “hills,” and there display their pugnacious propensities,
although, as in French duels, but little serious harm results to the combatants.
The nest, which is roughly lined with dead grass and sedge, is usually placed on a
tussock in the middle of a swamp. Years ago enormous numbers of ruffs and
reeves (as the females are termed) were netted in the Lincolnshire marshes during
the breeding-season. By many writers ruffs are separated as Machetes.

Nearly allied to the preceding group are the birds known as
godwits, distinguished by the feathers of the forehead not extending
in advance of the angle of the gape, the extremity of the long beak being hard and
but little expanded. A large portion of the tibia is devoid of feathers, and the
claw of the third toe is comb-like. Were it not that there is a difference in the
conformation of the upper-part of the breast-bone in the two groups, the godwits
could scarcely be separated generically from the hard-billed sandpipers. These
birds are represented by four species and two varieties, all of which breed in the
Temperate and Arctic portions of the Northern Hemisphere, but migrate far to
the south in winter, and two of which frequent the British Islands. Of the latter
the bar-tailed godwit (Limosa rufa), which measures 15 or 16 inches in length,
has in summer the upper tail-coverts and tail white with dark brown barrings,
but is especially characterised by the lower back, rump, axillaries, and under wing-
coverts being white with obscure brown markings. Breeding locally on the Arctic
tundras of Europe and Western Asia, the ordinary form is replaced by a variety

Godwits.

494 PLOVER TRIBE.

eastwards of the Yenisei; while in North America it is represented by the American
bar-tailed godwit (L. fedoa), in which the axillaries and under wing-coverts
are chestnut. Rarer in Britain than the bar-tailed species, the black-tailed godwit
(L. melanura) may be recognised
by the tail-feathers being black
with white bases, and by the white
axillaries. This Old World form
is represented in Eastern Asia by
a variety, while in the New World
its place is taken by the American
black-tailed godwit (L. hudsonica),
distinguished by its dark brown
axillaries and under wing-coverts.
All the godwits migrate far south
in winter, the two Old World
kinds then reaching Africa and
India, and their eastern varieties
visiting Australia. Although fre-
= GA ahGn Gio. quently breeding far inland, the
godwits are essentially shore-birds
in winter, and to suit them for such a habitat acquire in autumn a mud-coloured
livery.
Snipe-Beaked The four species of the genus Hreunetes form a kind of connect-
Sandpipers. ing link between the preceding and the snipe, having the frontal
feathers arranged as in the former, but the extremity of the beak soft, expanded,
and rugose, as in the latter. The best known species is the red-breasted sandpiper
(or snipe, as it is generally called), which breeds in Arctic America, where it is
represented by two varieties, and migrates in winter as far as Brazil and Chili,
occasionally struggling to Western Europe. In Siberia it is replaced by
Taczanowsky’s sandpiper (2. taczanowskit).

Long associated with the plovers, which they resemble in general
bodily conformation and the shortness of the beak, the turnstones are
classed by Mr. Seebohm with the snipes; and whether such an arrangement be
natural or artificial, it certainly enables us to define the third subfamily, or Scolopa-
cine, with ease and exactness. Its members may be distinguished from the
preceding forms by their toes being free to the base, and having no trace of webs.
The turnstones differ from the other members of the assemblage, and thereby
resemble the plovers, in that the nostrils extend beyond the basal fourth of the beak;
the beak itself being short, thick at the base, tapering, and somewhat conical ;
while the metatarsus is covered with scutes in front, and reticulated behind. In
the elongated wings the first quill is the longest, and the short and nearly
even tail includes twelve feathers. The tibia is bare for a short distance, and
the first toe is present. The turnstones are represented by three species, all of
which breed in the Arctic regions, and migrate south in winter. The common
turnstone (Strepsilas «interpres), which is a cireumpolar species, visiting the
British coasts in autumn and spring, and occasionally tarrying there for the winter,

Turnstones.

TURNSTONES. 495

may be recognised by its pure white chin and throat; the general coloration
of the plumage being mottled black, white, and chestnut, and the total length of
the bird 9} inches. The black turnstone (S. melanocephalus) of Western North
America, in addition to its broader wings, differs by the white lower back, and the
absence of a pure white throat and neck; while the plover-billed turnstone (S.
virgatus), from the Pacific Coast of America, may always be recognised by the
vaulted extremity of its beak, and the brown colour of the lower back.

The common turnstone, which in winter is one of the most cosmopolitan of
birds, occurring as far away from its northern home as South America and New
Zealand, takes its name from its habit of overturning pebbles and other stones

COMMON TURNSTONE,

with its beak for the purpose of obtaining the various marine creatures that lurk
beneath their shelter. In such tasks the breast as well as the beak is occasionally
brought into requisition; and an instance is on record where three of these birds
combined their forces in order to overturn a stranded fish. Except during migra-
tion, the turnstone is essentially a littoral bird; and in Britain it is generally seen
in pairs or small parties, frequently in association with other waders. Although
generally running along the shore, and taking short flights when disturbed, it is not
destitute of the power of swimming; and its cry is a clear loud whistle. The nest
is but a poor affair, consisting of a sparsely lined hollow in the sand ; and the four
spotted eggs differ in coloration from those of the plovers, and resemble those of
the sandpipers and snipe. The slight difference between the summer and winter
dress of these birds affords further evidence of their scolopaceous affinities.

496 PEOVER TRIBE.

Cleft-Footed Under this general title may be grouped a considerable assem-

Sandpipers. ]})]age of small wading birds, of which the knot (Tringa canutus), the
dunlin (7. alpina), the broad-billed sandpiper (7. platyrhyncha), the little stint —
(LT. minuta), and the sanderling (Calidris arenaria), are familiar British examples ;
the last-named forming a genus by itself on account of the absence of the first toe,
which is present in the remainder. These birds differ from the turnstones in that
the nostrils are situated in the basal fourth of the beak, and in the metatarsus
being covered with scutes both in front and behind. The beak, which is narrow,
slightly compressed, and rugose towards the tip, where it may be slightly bent
down, is always shorter than the combined length of the metatarsus and third toe ;
the first primary quill of the wing largely exceeds the fourth in length ; and the tail
is uniformly coloured. In addition
to the sanderling, the group com-
prises thirteen species, with certain
local varieties, and is confined in
the breeding-season to the higher
latitudes of the Northern Hemi-
sphere, although in winter becoming
cosmopolitan. Of the numerous
species visiting the British Islands, |
only the dunlin breeds there, and
that but sparingly. Among these
the curlew-sandpiper (7. arcuata),
demands notice on account of its
curved beak; while still more

remarkable is the broadly expanded

Sia) ROR. tip of the beak of the spoon-billed

sandpiper (7. pygiicea), a species

probably breeding to the northward of Behring Strait, and separated by many

writers, as Hurhinorhynchus. The sanderling (Calidris arenaria), easily recog-

nised by the absence of the first toe, the black legs, and broad beak, breeds near

the coasts of many portions of the Arctic Ocean, although not on the Norwegian
and Russian portions, and has been taken as far south as Java.

Three sandpipers from the Southern Hemisphere, two of which inhabit the
Australian region and the other South America, differ from the preceding in the
slight inequality in the length of the first four primary quills of the wing, and
are thus assigned to a distinct genus, Phegornis.

The beautiful birds commonly termed painted snipe, of which
there are three species inhabiting the warmer regions of both
hemispheres, are distinguished from the members of the subfamily yet noticed by
the difference in length between the shortest and longest primary quill beimg much
less—instead of much more—than the length of the beak. They resemble the
preceding forms, however, in that the length of the beak is much less than twice

Painted Snipe.

that of the metatarsus, and in the possession of a pale median line on the crown of
the head, and two light stripes down the back, they are like the true snipe. The
foot is four-toed, and a considerable portion of the tibia is bare.

PAINTED SNIPE. 497

The best known representative of the genus is the common painted snipe
(Rhynchea capensis)—so familiar to all snipe-shooters in Bengal—which is dis-
tributed all over Africa south of the Sahara, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Ceylon,
Burma, and the Malayan region, and thence to the Philippines, China, Southern
Japan, ete. This is one of the two largest species, and is specially characterised
by the large number of buff eye-like spots on the primary quills of the wings.
The adult female is somewhat the larger and more brightly coloured bird, and
may always be recognised by the olive-green wing-coverts, in which each feather
is crossed by nearly a dozen narrow dark bars. In the adult female the neck is
deep chestnut, shading into black on the breast; and the outermost of the inner
secondaries are white, forming a conspicuous stripe. The adult male, on the other
hand, has only two dark bars on each feather of the wing-coverts, with a buff
patch between them. In both sexes the quills of the wings are olivaceous grey,
with narrow dark bars, and a series of five or more buff eye-like spots on the outer
webs, and the inner webs with similar spots alternating with white bars. The
olive-grey tail has four or five rows of these same buff spots on both webs of the
feathers, all of which are tipped with buff. The plumage of the upper-parts is
more or less olivaceous, with the feathers marked by fine zigzag lines ; while the chin
and lower breast are white, the white area of the latter passing on to the shoulder
to form a stripe on the scapular region. In addition to the pale stripé down the
middle of the head, there is likewise a light area round each eye. The Australian
species (R. australis) may be distinguished by having two instead of four buff
spots on the outer web of the eighth primary quill; while the female is peculiar
in possessing a much convoluted windpipe. The South American painted
snipe (R. semicollaris), wandering in summer as far south as Patagonia and
wintering in Peru and Brazil, is a much smaller bird than either of the others,
with conspicuous large round white spots on the black wing-coverts. Differing
from the true snipe in their shorter beaks, and low, flapping flight, the painted
snipe haunt the same marshy districts as the latter; and although they
afford but poor sport, the beauty of one of these birds as it falls on the ground
with outstretched wings and tail displaying the spots is quite unrivalled.
Although resident throughout the year in India, the common species has to
change its quarters a good deal in the drier districts of that country, and is
only a migrant to the north-west. When breeding, they are always found in pairs;
and, so far as the writer’s experience goes, this is generally the case in Lower
Bengal all through the colder months, but at certain times of the year Mr. Hume
says that they are more frequently met with in small parties. The number of
eggs seems to be four; and both parent birds are always in the neighbourhood
of the nest. The young birds, when first hatched, have the beak quite short.

Woodcock and The extreme length of the slender beak, which is more than
Snipe. twice that of the metatarsus, serves at once to distinguish these

birds from their relatives, with whom alone they agree in having the toes

completely free from webs. The long and straight beak is swollen at the

sides, and soft and rugose at the tip, with the laterally-placed and_ basal

nostrils covered with a membrane. The long wings are generally pointed, while

the rounded tail comprises a variable number of feathers. Although in all the
VOL. IV.—32

498 PLOVER TRIBE.

species the metatarsus is covered both in front and behind with scutes, the tibia
may be either feathered to its base, or partially naked; but a small first toe,
elevated above the level of the others, is always present. There is but little
difference between the summer and winter dress; and the peculiar mottled russet
or ashy tone of the plumage is admirably adapted for concealing the birds in
their native haunts. All these birds are more or less nocturnal in their
habits; and all are endued with the power of strong, rapid, and long-sustained
flight, frequently accompanied by those peculiar zig-zag dartings when frightened,
which renders snipe-shooting in many countries so difficult to the inexperienced.
The long and sensitive beak is adapted for probing in soft mud in search of the
insects, larvee, and worms on which these birds chiefly subsist. Although each
male invariably pairs with a single female in all the species, some may be gregarious
at certain seasons, while others are always solitary. All frequent either marshes
or woodland swamps; and they make slight nests on the ground in which are
deposited four pear-shaped and spotted eggs. In the young the beak is com-
paratively short. The genus comprises seventeen species, some of which are
divided into local varieties, and have a world-wide distribution, four of the species
occurring in the British Islands, where, however, only two breed.

Contrasted with the common snipe, the woodcock differs so
markedly in several features that if we had these two alone to deal
with they might be referred to distinct genera, but the existence of more or less com-
pletely intermediate types renders it preferable to follow Mr. Seebohm in including
the whole under the genus Scolopax. In the snipe a considerable portion of the tibia is
bare, whereas in the woodeock (S. rusticola) it is completely feathered; there are four-
teen tail-feathers in the former and twelve in the latter; in the snipe the primaries
are long and the secondaries short, whereas the reverse is the case with its cousin ;
the black markings on the head of the snipe are longitudinal, and commence at the
beak, while in the woodcock they are transverse and confined to the back of the
head; the under surface of the tail-feathers of the woodeock have silvery white
tips, which are wanting in the snipe; the snipe has uniformly coloured primary
quills, while those of the woodecock are barred; lastly, the eggs of the woodeock
have a much paler ground-colour than those of the snipe. Measuring from 13 to

Woodcock,

14 inches in length, the common woodeock may be distinguished from its
allies by the above-mentioned transverse markings on the head, and the silvery
tips to the under-surface of the tail-feathers, coupled with the barred breast, and
the bars on both webs of the primaries; and it will thus be unnecessary to describe
the bird in detail, although reference must be made to its large, brown, beady eye.
Breeding as far north as the Arctic Circle in forest-districts, and as far south as
the Alps, Caucasus, and Himalaya, at considerable elevations, as well as in the
mountains of Japan, the common woodcock ranges over the greater part of Kurope
and Asia, visiting India and the adjacent regions in winter. Although the
individuals breeding in the extreme north are migratory, those whose nesting-
haunts are more to the south are probably resident. The smaller North American
woodeock (GS. minor) differs by the narrowness of the first three primary quills,
and the nearly uniform coloration of all the primaries and under-parts; the
Moluecean woodcock (S. rochussen?) has a uniform breast and barred primaries ;

WOODCOCK AND SNIPE. 499

while in the medium-sized Horsfield’s woodcock (S. saturata) of Java and New
Guinea, only the outer webs of the primaries are barred. In the same group with
the woodcocks Mr. Seebohm includes six southern species which he terms semi-
woodeocks, five of which are from South America, while the last (S. auchklandica)
is from New Zealand. Possessing the longitudinal head-markings of the two

\
EAS

WOODCOCK IN COVERT.

groups of snipe, these birds differ from all the latter either by having not more
than sixteen tail-feathers, or by the tibia being feathered almost or completely to
the joint. Essentially nocturnal and solitary in its habits, the woodcock passes the
day skulking among the thick shade of woods, from whence it issues forth at
evening to search for food in the marshes or along the banks of streams. Worms,
of which it will consume a prodigious quantity, form its chief nutriment;
and it appears that it ascertains the position of these creatures by plunging

500 PLOVER TRIBE.

its beak deep down into the mud and remaining motionless for a few seconds.
If any subterranean movement is then detected, the beak is once more
plunged in the direction indicated, and the hapless worm extracted. When
flushed during Gaylight, the woodcock rises with a “whirr” of its wings, and
occasionally uttering a snipe-like cry. It always flies much less rapidly than a
snipe, and does not dart so much; while
after a long journey its flight is so slow
and flapping that in the Himalaya the
writer has kicked up these birds from
beneath his feet without at first realising.
what they were. During the pairing-
season male woodcocks forsake for a time
their usual skulking habits, and fly slowly
up and down in the open at morn and
eve in a peculiar manner, at the same
time uttering a characteristic cry. The
term “rédding” is applied to this nuptial
flight; and if two cocks thus engaged
should chance to meet, a fight immediately
ensues. Breeding very early in the season,
the woodcock nests in a mere depression
of the ground, which it lines abundantly
with dry grass and leaves; the four eggs
being generally laid in April. The nest is
usually situated among dead fern, with the colours of which the plumage of the
old birds harmonises. The young are at times carried to a safer spot by their
parent, who takes them one by one between her thighs, and partially supports
them by the beak.

ero

WOODCOCK AND NEST.

Under this title Mr. Seebohm groups a small number of species
characterised by possessing longitudinal head-markings, and more
than sixteen tail-feathers; the tibia being occasionally feathered to the ankle-
joint, while the inner webs of the primaries are either plain, or have the bars
confined to their terminal portions. Of these, the solitary snipe (S. solitaria), which
breeds in Turkestan and the Himalaya, visiting India in winter, and represented
by a variety in Eastern Siberia and Japan, may be distinguished by the white
streaks on the outer borders of the seapulars; the usual number of tail-feathers
being apparently eighteen. It inhabits bare, treeless districts. Another member
is the wood-snipe (S. nemorivaga), of the Himalaya, India, and Burma, which has
the habits of a woodeock, and may be recognised by the shortest secondary quills
projecting more than half an inch beyond the longest of the primary coverts,—a
character indicating limited flying-powers; while the tibia is usually feathered to
the joint. The small pintail snipe (S. stenwra), which breeds as far north as the
Arctic Circle from the Yenisei to the Pacific, and winters in India, China, Burma,
Malayana, ete., is characterised by its twenty-six tail-feathers, of which the
eight outermost on each side are very narrow, although gradually increasing in
width.

Aberrant Snipe.

WOODCOCK AND SNIPE. 501

The members of this group, while agreeing with those of the
last in the longitudinal black markings on the head, are characterised
by the number of tail-feathers never exceeding sixteen, by a considerable portion
of the tibia being bare, and by the total absence of bars on the inner webs of the
primary quills. Of these, the great snipe (S. major), which has sixteen tail-feathers,
and measures from 103 to 114 inches in length, is characterised by the greater
portion of the four outer tail-feathers on each side being white, and by the broad
white tips to the median tail-coverts. A rare straggler during (chiefly autumnal)
migration to the British Islands, the great snipe breeds in Northern and some parts
of South-Eastern Europe, and as far eastwards as the valley of Yenisei, while in
winter the majority sojourn in South Africa. Hastwards of the Yenisei its place
is taken by Swinhoe’s snipe (S. megala), which belongs to the preceding group,
having twenty tail-feathers. The best
known member of the whole group is the
common snipe (S. galinago), some of the
leading features of which have been
already alluded to on p. 498. This
species, Which attains a length of 104
inches, is, however, characterised by
possessing fourteen tail-feathers, by the
breast being marked with longitudinal
dark streaks, and by the axillaries being |
white, more or less marked with grey.
The breeding-range of the common snipe
comprises Northern and Central Europe
as far as the Arctic Ocean, and south-
wards to the Alps and Southern Russia,
while eastwards it extends through
Siberia and Turkestan to South-Eastern
Mongolia. In winter the birds from the
northern portion of this extensive area
spread themselves over the countries on both sides of the Mediterranean, Persia,
India, Ceylon, Burma, China, and the Philippines. In North America this species
is replaced by a variety known as Wilson’s snipe, in the typical form of which
the beak is shorter, and the tail-feathers sixteen in number, while the axillaries
are barred with brown, and the breast is marked with transverse bars. Inter-
mediate forms, however, completely connect the two races; these being frequently
met with in India. The breeding-area of Wilson’s snipe extends from the Arctic
Circle to the northern United States; while in winter the species ranges to central
and northern South America. The last species to which we can allude is the jack-
snipe (S. gallinula), which is a common winter visitor to Britain, and is characterised
by its small size (length, 74 inches), its twelve tail-feathers, the purple gloss on
the feathers of the upper-parts, and the metallic green hue of the inner webs of
the scapulars.

Undergoing but slight seasonal variation in plumage, snipe are to be found at
all times of the year among the protection afforded by the sedge, grass, or other

Typical Snipe.

COMMON SNIPE.

502 PLOVER TRIBE.

vegetation of marshy places, from which they rise suddenly when flushed, with
the well-known staich, but without much whirring of the wings, and dart off with
lightning-like rapidity. Of the flight of Wilson’s snipe Dr G. B. Grinnell
observes that “most birds when they rise from the ground appear to have some
definite idea of the direction in which they wish to go, and having started in a
particular line of flight, keep to it, unless turned by some alarming apparition
before them. Not so with the snipe, however; he springs from the ground utter-
ing his curious squeaking ery, darts a few yards one way, changes his mind, and
turns almost at right angles to his original course; then he appears to think he

A FAMILY OF WILSON’S SNIPE.

has made a mistake, and now alters his direction, and so twists off, ‘angling’
across the meadow until he is out of gunshot. He then either rises high in the
air and swings about for awhile, looking for a desirable spot to alight, or else
settles down into a straight, swift course, which he keeps up until his fright is over,
or he has come to a spot which is to his liking, when he throws himself to the
earth, and with a peculiar toss of his wings checks his progress, and alights.”
Fortunately for the sportsman in India, where the common snipe is more abundant
than elsewhere, these birds do not generally indulge in such vagaries, but fly
straight away. The writer has, however, occasionally seen the common species
dart, although the pintail does so but very rarely. Unless flushed, snipe are but
rarely seen on the wing during the day; and their chief feeding-time, like their
migration, is by night. In Europe snipe are essentially solitary birds, but this can
scarcely be said to be the case in India, where a “whisp” of from six to a dozen

JACANAS. eee

may often be seen flying together over a marsh; while these birds may often be
flushed in crowds from one spot, where they must have been feeding in close
proximity. They are never found away from covert, although on rare oceasions the
common species has been observed perching on a tree; and they never settle where
the water is deep enough to wet the feathers of the breast. At ordinary seasons a
very silent bird, when breeding, the common snipe utters a peculiar two-syllabled
note, compared to tyihk-tyuk, of which the utterance is accompanied by a nodding
of the head. Moreover, the males at the same season indulge in the peculiar per-
formance known as “drumming,” during which they may be seen flying diagonally
upwards or round and round in large circles, and then suddenly swooping down
with vibrating half-closed wings and outspread tail; the “drumming,” which has
been compared to the bleating of a goat, being only produced during the descent.

In Britain newly laid eggs of the common snipe may be found from the
middle of April till the middle of May; the nest being a hollow, lined with dried
grass, usually placed in the middle of a tussock of rushes or coarse grass in a
swamp, or under the protecting shelter of the same. The four eggs are somewhat
variable in hue, the ground-colour being some shade of buff or olive, upon which
are large blotches of rich, dark brown, with large underlying markings of lighter
brown and grey. The main duty of incubation is performed by the hen-bird; and
but a single brood is produced during the year. In the Arctic regions the eggs,
like those of the jack-snipe, are not laid till June.

JACANAS AND WATER-PHEASANTS.
Family PARRIDE.

Mainly from the circumstance that many of them have a naked shield on the
forehead, like that of the coots and moor-hens, the members of the present small
family were formerly classed with the rails, although their true position appears to
be here. From the Charadrvide they are distinguished by the presence of un-
ossified vacuities in the occipital surface of the skull; while they differ from all
other birds in the extraordinary elongation of their toes. They are handsomely
coloured birds, black, or black-and-white, being the predominating tints; but the
young are less brilliant than the adults. The group is confined to South America,
Africa south of the Tropic of Cancer, the Indian region, Australia, and Papua.
nae The jacanas (Parra), of which there are ten species, have a dis-

tribution coextensive with that of the family; and although their
fossil remains have not been discovered, it is probable that they lived in Europe
during the Tertiary period, and have reached their present habitat by a southerly
migration. The species here figured (P. nigra) is an inhabitant of Brazil. They
are long-legged, slenderly-built birds, with short tails, spurs on the wings, and the
aforesaid shield on the head. Insectivorous in their diet, they frequent lakes and
quiet rivers, where their long toes enable them to walk over the leaves of the water-
lihes. The nest is a rude structure, built near the edge of the water; and the eggs,
which vary from four to six in number, and have a bluish green ground with liver-
coloured spots, often rest on the bare soil.

504 WATER-PHEASANTS.

The largest member of the family is the beautiful water-pheasant
(Hydrophasianus chirurgus) of India and Ceylon, which is the sole
representative of its genus, and is easily recognised by the elongation of the two
central tail-feathers, and the pied plumage. These birds, which are abundant on the
lakes of Kashmir, as well as those of India, usually assume their breeding-plumage
in May or June; and they utter a peculiar mewing, or wailing sound, which can be

Water-Pheasant.

BRAZILIAN JACANA (4 nat. size).

heard for a considerable distance. The nest may be either a floating structure of
grass and herbage, or fixed among the growing stalks of rice, and in July or
August receives a clutch of from four to seven bronzy brown or green eggs.

SHEATH-BILLS AND SEED-SNIPE.
Families CHIONIDIDZ and THINOCORID.

In this place brief mention may be made of certain birds which appear to con-
nect tosome extent the members of the preceding families with the gulls. These

SHEATH-BILLS. 505

comprise the sheath-bills (Chionis), represented by one species (C. alba) in the
Falkland Islands and Straits of Magellan, and a second (C. minor) in the Crozet
and Kerguelen Islands; and the seed-snipe (Thinocorus and Attagis) of temperate
South America. All these birds
differ from the Charadriide, and
resemble the coursers and gulls in
the absence of basipterygoid pro-
cesses on the rostrum of the skull,
as also of a pair of vacuities on the
occipital face of the latter; the
sheath - bills having more or less
slit-like (schizorhinal) nasal aper-
tures in the skull, while those of
the seed-snipe approximate to the
oval (holorhinal) type. The sheath-
bills in Kerguelen Island, writes
Moseley, “are present everywhere
on the coast, and from their ex-
treme tameness and inquisitive
habits, are always attracting one’s Rone ane SERIE.

attention. A pair or two of them

always forms part of any view on the coast. The birds are pure white, about the
size of a very large pigeon, but with the appearance rather of a fowl. They have
light pink-coloured legs, with partial webbing at the toes, small spurs on the inner
sides of the wings, and a black
bill with a most curious lamina
of horny matter projecting over
the nostrils. Round the eye is a
tumid, pink ring bare of feathers ;
about the head are wattle - like
warts. The birds nest under
fallen rocks along the cliffs, often

in places where the nest is difficult
of access. The nest is made of
grass and bent; and the eggs are
usually two in number, of the
shape of those of the plovers, and
of a somewhat similar colouring,
spotted dark red and brown.”
When first hatched the young are
Fe RS IN dae tr black. The adult birds utter a
harsh note, and feed chiefly on

seaweed and molluses; their fearlessness being such that they will often allow
themselves to be knocked on the head with a stick. The seed-snipe, or quail-snipe,
are small, short-billed birds with the general appearance and habits of quail, iving
in dry inland districts, where they subsist on plants, roots, and insects. The

506 GULL TRIBE.

figured species (Attagis latredlle:) inhabits the Falkland Islands and the higher
mountains of the southern part of South America. In both genera the beak is
rather short and compressed, with the aperture of the nostrils in most cases closed
by a horny membrane covered with short feathers. Generally these birds are met
with in pairs or small coveys of five or six, which frequent the same spots for long
periods. . Although they frequent desert regions, the nest is placed near a lake;
the number of eggs being four or five.

THE GULL TRIBE.
Order GAVLE.

Formerly associated with the petrels, the terns, skimmers, gulls, and skuas,
are now generally regarded as nearly allied to the Linvcole, with which they agree
in the arrangement of thei plumage.
Externally these birds are characterised
by the prevalence of pure grey and white
in their adult plumage, and by the com-
plete webbing of the three front toes, as
well as by their long wings, in which the
fifth secondary quill is wanting. Their
skulls differ from those of the typical
Innvicole in the absence of basipterygoid
processes on the inferior surface of the
rostrum; while the hinder extremity of
the lower jaw is abruptly truncated; and
in the wing the flat bone, corresponding
to the first joint of the human forefinger,
has two circular perforations—a feature
distinguishing the skeleton from that of any of the plover tribe and their allies.
Throughout the group there are deep grooves on the upper surface of the skull for
glands; the development of these being very variable among the Limicolw. Except
in the skimmers, the beak is simple, and may be either straight or hooked. In
the wing there are ten large primaries, and one minute and concealed; the whole
plumage is remarkably compact, the contour-feathers having after-shafts; there
are twelve tail-feathers; the spinal feather-tract is well defined by bare lateral
areas on the neck, and forked on the upper-back; and the oil-gland is tufted. In
their down-clad and active young, these birds resemble the plovers, but the down
is of a more complex type. The first toe is raised above the level of the others,
with which it is not connected by membrane; and the nasal apertures in the skull
are schizorhinal, while the external nostrils are elongated, and placed rather low
down on the sides of the base of the beak. In the general structure of the palate,
as well as in the presence of a process on the outer side of the humerus (see figure
in Vol. III. p. 295), the gulls resemble the plovers. Rarely, if ever, exceeding
three in number, the eggs are spotted or scrolled with dark markings on the light-

YOUNG GULLS COVERED WITH DOWN.

coloured ground,

GROUP OF BRITISH GULLS AND TERNS.

1, Common Tern ; 2, Black-Backed Gull : 3, Glaucous Gull; 4, Black-Headed Gull.

— bey

oes
Terex

Rae wes

ra oe a

Mae

TERNS. 5°9

Gregarious and noisy in their habits, the gulls and terns are chiefly frequenters
of the coasts, although many of them may be found on inland waters, while
all may be driven inland by stress of weather. Even in England gulls may be
seen following the plough in search of worms; and in parts of Argentina, as in
the Colina district, at a distance of some two hundred miles from the sea, they
appear to dwell permanently inland, nesting in the lagunas. In Britain, while some
species breed on coast-clifts, others nest on islands and inland lakes, grassy downs,
and peat-mosses. All the members of the group are birds of powerful and sustained
flight, and are capable of floating in the air with scarce a movement of their wings,
while they are equally at home on the surface of the water, where their webbed
feet enable them to swim with facility. The terns are, however, more essentially
aerial and aquatic birds than the gulls, their short legs not being well adapted for
walking on land. In the neighbourhood of the sea the food of all these birds con-
sists mainly of fish and refuse, but when inland they consume worms, insects, the
eggs and young of other birds, and the offal from slaughter-houses. Although the
group as a whole has a cosmopolitan distribution, it is noteworthy that in the great
area lying between South America and the neighbourhood of Australia and New
Zealand not a single gull is to be met with, although terns are abundant. Along
the southern shores of Australia, and also in New Zealand, a large, dark-mantled
gull (Larus pacificus) makes its appearance as an isolated form. Geologically, the
group appears to be one of the oldest of the existing orders of birds, remains of an
extinct genus (Halcyornis) occurring in the London Clay, a formation belonging to
the lowest division of the Tertiary period; while other forms, which have been
assigned to the existing genus Larus, occur in beds pertaining to the lower portion
of the Miocene period. According to the classification adopted by Mr. Howard
Saunders, the order may be divided into two families, the first of which is again
split up into three subfamilies.

THE TERNS, SKIMMERS, AND GULLS.
Family LARIDZ.

Including the three groups above-named, each of which represents a subfamily,
the present family is characterised as follows. The beak has no cere at its base;
_ there are two notches on each side of the hinder margin of the breast-bone; the
toes may be either partially or fully webbed; and the claws are feeble or of
moderate length.

The terns, of which eleven genera are recognised by Mr. Saunders,
constitute a subfamily (Sternine), characterised by the straight and
rather slender beak, in which the two mandibles are of nearly equal length; by the
feather-tracts resembling those of the plovers in their arrangement; and by the
slight or distinct forking of the tail. In Britain the group is represented by two
genera, and it is to these that our notice is mainly confined. The marsh terns form
a genus (Hydrochelidon) represented by four species, three of which are British.
Belonging to a group of genera, in which the tail may be either nearly square or
deeply forked, and the head devoid of elongated plumes at the gape of the mouth,

Terns.

510 GUL, TRIBE.

the marsh-terns are specially distinguished by the rounded or slightly pointed tail-
feathers, the short tail, which is less than half the length of the wing, the small
beak, with the culmen less than twice the length of the metatarsus, and the feeble
feet, in which the webs are considerably indented between the toes. All these
terns nest in marshes, either on tussocks of grass, or among floating vegetation.
The best known of the British species is the black tern (H. nigra), in which the
under-parts in the adult summer plumage are dark leaden grey; the upper tail-
coverts and tail being grey, the beak black, the chin and sides of the face like the
under-parts, the crown nearly black, and the under wing-coverts pale grey. On
the other hand, the whiskered tern (H. hybrida), which is but an occasional
strageler to Britain from the south, has the beak blood-red, the chin and sides of
the face pure white, the throat and breast grey, passing into blackish grey on the
abdomen, and the
under wing-
coverts white.
Abundant in
Southern Europe,
this tern ranges
over a large part
of Africa and
most of Asia.
The beautiful

white - winged

HEAD OF BROAD-BILLED TERN.

(From Saunders, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1876.) black tern (H.
lewcoptera),which

is likewise but a rare visitor to the British Isles, differs from both the preceding
in that the upper tail-coverts and tail are white in the adult summer-plumage, the

under-parts being black as far as the vent, and the under wing-coverts of the
same hue, while the beak is dull red. Rare in Northern Europe, this species is
more common in the south and east, whence its range extends over the greater
portion of Europe. Mr. Saunders writes that “the black tern breeds in colonies,
the nest being situated in marshes, and formed of decayed pieces of Hquisetum and
other plants, or heaps of wrack, which rise and fall with the tide; sometimes they
are placed on the firmer hummocks of bog in the middle of shallow parts. The
egos are three in number, of various shades of ochreous clay, olive-brown, or olive-
green, blotched with dark brown, especially at the larger end. The food of this
tern consists chiefly of beetles and dragon-flies, with some small fish; it is also
very partial to leeches.”

The true terns, of which the common tern (Sterna fluviatilis) is the
typical form, differ from the marsh-terns and their allies by the distinctly
pointed outer tail-feathers; while they are further characterised by the shortness
of the metatarsus, the moderately elongated tail, and the compressed and slender
beak. With two exceptions, these terns have the crown of the head black;
while, as a rule, the under-parts are white or grey, although in the Oriental
black-bellied tern (S. melanogaster) they are black. The common species, as well
as the Arctic (S. macrwra), roseate (8S. dougallz), and Sandwich tern (S. cantiana)

TERNS AND NODDIES. 511

are large-sized forms belonging to a group of the genus in which the forehead is
black to the culmen of the beak; whereas the sooty tern (S. fuliginosa) is the
British representative of another
group in which the front of the
forehead is white in the adult
plumage. From all the above the
lesser tern (S. minuta), together
with several other species, may be
distinguished by its inferior
dimensions ; the length of the wing
being less than 8 inches, whereas
in the other groups it varies from
9} to 12 inches. The broad-billed
tern (S. ewrygnatha), of which the
head is figured on p. 510, is an
inhabitant of the Atlantic coast of
America, from South Brazil to the
island of Trinidad, and is repre-
sented by a closely allied species on COMMONER

the Pacific coast of the New World.

As an essentially tropical genus of the subfamily, brief mention
must be made of the noddies, typically represented by Anous
stolidus. These birds belong to a group of the subfamily, differing from the one
including the two last by the graduated tail, in which the feathers are pointed,
and the outermost shorter than the next pair, As a genus, the noddies are
characterised by the short middle toe, the strong decurved beak, and by the fourth
pair of tail-feathers, counting from the outer side, exceeding all the others in
length. The common noddy appears to be generally distributed throughout the
tropics, one of its best known breeding-haunts being the Tortuga Islands, off
Florida. Its general colour is dark ; but, like the allied species, it has a light grey
patch on the crown of the head
and forehead.

Noddies.

The remark-

able birds known

as skimmers, or scissor-bills,
constitute a subfamily (Rhyn-
chopine), distinguished not only
from the terns (which they other-
wise resemble), but likewise from
all other birds, by the peculiar
structure of the beak ; this organ
being elongated and compressed
to a knife-like form, with the
lower mandible considerably
longer than the upper one, which

BLACK SKIMMER. 1S freely movable. The single

Skimmers.

512 GULL TRIBE.

genus of the subfamily is represented by three species, of which the black skimmer
(Rhynchops nigra), distinguished by its dark beak, is North American, while the
yellow-beaked skimmer (R. albicollzs) is Indian, the third species inhabiting the
Nile and Red Sea littoral. The American species has been observed flying close
to the water, with the lower half of the beak immersed beneath the surface,
doubtless searching for food.

The gulls proper, as distinguished from the other members of
the order, form the third subfamily (Lavine) of the typical family ;
the great majority of them belonging to the genus Larus, although the kittiwake
and an allied species from the North Pacitic are separated as Rissa ; while Sabine’s
gull and a kindred but very rare form from the Galapagos Islands constitute the
genus Xema; and Ross's gull (Rhodostethia rossi). and the ivory gull (Pagophila
eburnea) respectively represent distinct generic types. As a subfamily, the gulls
are characterised by the upper mandible of the beak being longer than the
lower one, over which its tip is bent down; while the tail is usually squared,
although in one genus it is forked, and in a second wedge-shaped. Some of the
smaller gulls, like so many of the terns, assume a dark head and neck in the
summer-plumage.

Fork-Tailed Sabine’s gull (Nema sabinei), together with the Galapagos

Gulls: forked-tailed gull (X. furcatwm), may be at once distinguished by
the forking of the tail,—a character in which they agree with the great majority
of the terns, as they also do in the assumption of a dark head during the breeding-
season. Not a very uncommon straggler—especially in the immature state—to
the British Islands, Sabine’s gull breeds in Arctic America and Siberia, generally
in company with the Arctic tern; two eggs being laid by the female on the bare
ground. Of the second and larger species but little is known, only a few examples
having found their way into European collections.

As the forked tail serves to distinguish the members of the last
genus, so the single representative (Rhodostethia rossi) of the
present one is equally well demarcated by the wedge-like contour of the same
appendage. It is likewise characterised by its small dove-like beak: while the
delicate pink hue of its plumage is also a striking feature, although one shared by
some other members of the subfamily. Formerly rare in collections, this gull has
more recently been obtained abundantly off Point Barron; but its true polar
haunts appear to be as yet undiscovered, although it has been seen in summer
in Boothia Felix and Franz-Josef Land.

Represented by nearly half a hundred species, the typical gulls
of the genus Larus differ from both the preceding by the squared
tail, while they are further characterised by the full development of the first or
hind-toe. The genus includes both the largest and the smallest representatives of
the subfamily ; and while some species assume a dark head in the breeding-season,
others lose all trace of dark tints in this region when adult. The smallest of the
dark-headed species visiting the British Islands is the little gull (Z. minutus), easily
recognised by its diminutive size, and, when in flight, by the slaty black under
surface of the wings. A straggler to Southern Norway, this gull is common in the
Mediterranean countries, ranging eastwards to the Caucasus, and thence northwards

Gulls.

Ross’s Gull.

Typical Gulls.

GULLS. 513

across Siberia to the Lena. Nesting in colonies in the vicinity of Lake Ladoga,
together with the common tern, the female generally lays three or four egys,
which may be distinguished from those of the former by the orange-red, instead of
yellow, colour of their yolks. Whereas the species just mentioned is but a very
occasional visitor there, the black-headed gull (LZ. ridibundus) is a common
denizen of the British coasts, showing an especial partiality for flat shores during
the winter, but in the spring seeking marshes for the purpose of breeding. In this
species the head and upper part of the neck are dark brown, and the beak lake-red
in the summer-dress; but in the Mediterranean black-headed gull (LZ. melano-

BLACK-HEADED GULL (} nat. size).

cephalus) the head is jet-black, and the beak coral-red, with a dark band in front
of the angle; while the primary quills, in fully adult examples, are white, instead
of parti-coloured. In America the group is represented by the laughing gull
(L. atricilla), distinguished from the British species by its larger dimensions, and
characterised by having the first three outer primaries black, with minute white
tips. The largest member of the group is the great black-headed gull (L. ichthy-
aétus), ranging eastwards from the Levant to China, and northwards to Mongolia.
In length the male may measure as much as 27 inches (against 16 inches in the
black-headed gull); and in the breeding-plumage the adult has a jet-black head
and upper neck, the beak orange-red, passing into red at the angle of the mandible,
VOL. IV.— 33

514 GULL PRIBE,

the first primary mainly white, with a black streak along the outer web; while on
the second, third, and fourth quills of the same series the black forms a bar,
followed by a broad white tip.
With the somewhat misnamed
common gull (L. canws) we come to
the first of a group of mostly large
species, characterised by the pure
white head and neck in the summer-
plumage of the adult. Measuring
i8 inches in length, the adult in
summer has the head and neck pure
white; the back grey; the primaries
mostly black, with white spots or
tips; the beak yellow at the tip and
greenish yellow at the base; and
the total number of flight-feathers
thirty-one. Breeding throughout
Northern Europe and Asia, the
common gull is now only a winter
visitor to England, although it still
nests in Ireland and Scotland. Its
nests may be either scattered singly
along the shore, or aggregated into
larger or smaller colonies. On the
two sides of North America this
gull is severally represented by an allied species. Another British species demand-
ing notice is the herring-gull (LZ. argentatus), which considerably exceeds the last
in size, measuring upwards
of 23 inches in length. In
the adult summer-plumage
the head is white; the
mantle pale pearl-grey ; : F :
the beak wholly yellow; TT PL =
a ring round the eye y y ZZ Ha i]
yellow; and the legs flesh- ‘ SS 7 ZA hw)
coloured; while there are Be Hf YE Z
thirty-four flight-feathers.
The range of this species
includes Northern Europe,
the islands of the Atlantie,
such as the Azores, where
it breeds, and North
America; while in winter
it visits the north of
Africa. In Southern
Kiurope, as well as in HERRING-GULL.

COMMON GULL.

GULLS. EES

Siberia, and various parts of America, the herring-gull is replaced by several
very closely allied forms, mainly distinguished by the darker or lighter hue of the
mantle, the pattern of the quill-feathers, and the colour of the legs and of the ring
round the eye. These gulls are in the habit of following the shoals of the fish
from which they take their name, and may often be seen hovering above the
fry, preparatory to taking a plunge among them in the water. Their chief food
consists, however, of various marine animals thrown up by the tide; although during
the spring, and after rough weather,
they frequently wander far inland.
Somewhat superior in size to the
common gull (its length being
about 21 inches), the lesser black-
backed gull (LZ. fuscus) in the adult
summer-plumage has the head
white, the primaries blackish with
white tips, the back blackish, and
the legs bright yellow. This species
is resident in Britain, and ranges
eastwards to the Caspian, while
southwards it extends into Africa,
and westwards to the Canaries.
Of the great black -backed gull
(LZ. marinus), which is larger than
all the preceding, a well-known
observer, who writes under the
nom de plume of “A Son of the
Marshes,” says that these birds
“are not particular as to the nature
of their food, so long as there is
enough of it; a rat or a bird, a
fish or a snail, or bread and milk,
will suit almost equally well. LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL.

Tradition said that in the early

days of our oldest inhabitants the great black-backed gull bred on some of the wild
flats of the Kentish coast, and in a portion of the lonely salt marshes of Essex.”
In attacking young lambs, these gulls invariably commence by pecking out the
eyes of their victims; and as many as nine of these marauders have been captured
during a single evening by setting a number of traps round a dead lamb. In
length this gull measures upwards of 28 inches; and in the adult breeding-plumage
the head is white, the back blackish, and the legs flesh-colour; the number of
flight-feathers being thirty-four. Essentially an oceanic species, the greater
black-backed gull is mainly an inhabitant of both sides of the North Atlantic,
although it has been procured on the Pacific side of North America, and in winter
it ranges as far south as the Canaries. In the Southern Hemisphere it is replaced
by the southern black-backed gull (LZ. dominicanus), characterised by its stout
beak, brownish black mantle, and olive-coloured legs. Largest of all the British

516 GULL DRIBE.

species, the glaucous gull (Z.glawcws), in which the males may measure fully 32 inches,
is readily distinguished by the adult summer-plumage being nearly white through-
out, as well as by the comparative shortness of the wings and feet. Essentially an
Old World Arctie bird, this gull only wanders in winter to temperate and tropical
Europe; while in the North Pacific it is represented by the allied L. glaucescens,
ranging from America to Kamschatka, and distinguished by the faint grey
mottlings on the wings. Another occasional wanderer to the British Isles from
the north is the Iceland gull (Z. lewcopterus), which may be distinguished from the
last by its length not exceeding 22 inches, and likewise by the proportionately
much longer wings and legs. Bonaparte’s gull (L. philadelphia), a small species
with a greyish black head and upper neck, is remarkable for its habit of breeding
in tall trees.

Represented only by the common cireumpolar kittiwake (/issa

Kittiwakes.
a brs tridactyla) and an allied North Pacific species (2. brevirostris) from

KITTIWAKES NESTING.

the region lying between Alaska and Kamschatka, these gulls are distinguished by
the shortness of the metatarsus and the absence or rudimentary condition of the
first or hind-toe. It is not a little curious that while in most districts examples of
the common kittiwake in which the latter toe persists are but rarely met with, in

SKUAS. 517

Behring Sea this condition is much more common. Measuring 15 inches in length,
the kittiwake, in the summer-plumage of the adult, has the upper-parts white and
grey, the tail white, the first to the fifth primaries tipped with black, the under-
parts white, the beak yellow, and the legs brownish black. The kittiwake is a
resident in the British Isles, where it breeds in numbers on rocky cliffs, and feeds
chiefly on surface-swimming fry of fishes and marine invertebrates. The nests,
which are usually placed close together on narrow ledges of rock, are built of sea-
weed, and generally contain three eggs. The Pacitie species, which exhibits a
similar variation with regard to the first toe, may be distinguished by its orange-
red legs.

Conspicuous on account of its uniform delicate white plumage,
faintly suffused with a rosy tint, in marked contrast to which stand
out the jet black legs and greenish yellow beak, the lovely ivory-gull (Pagophila
eburnec) alone represents a genus characterised by the shortness of the beak, the
long and slightly graduated tail, and the connection of the first toe (of which the
claw is unusually long) with the metatarsus by means of a distinct web. A cir-
cumpolar inhabitant of the Arctic seas, this gull wanders into temperate regions
during the winter; its breeding-places being in Spitzbergen and other regions in
the far north. In contrast to the snowy white of the adult, the young of the
ivory-gull are conspicuously spotted with black.

Ivory-Gull.

THE SKUAS.
Family STERCORARIIDA.

Closely allied to the gulls, the skuas are considered by Mr. Saunders to form a
family by themselves, although many ornithologists are not disposed to admit the
necessity for such separation. As a family these birds are characterised by the
following features. The beak has a cere at the base, and the tip of the upper
mandible hooked; the breast-bone has but a single notch on each side; the blind
appendages (ceca) of the intestine are larger than in the preceding family; and
the completely webbed toes are furnished with strong, sharp, hooked claws.
Represented by six species, the skuas are all included in a single genus; and while
four of them breed only in the colder regions of the Northern Hemisphere, there are
two southern species, one of which (Stercorarius chilensis) is found on the western
coast of South America as far as the Straits of Magellan, and thence northwards to
Rio de Janeiro, the other ranging from Tierra del Fuego to the Cape, New Zealand,
and the Indian Ocean. *In the last edition of Yarvell’s Birds it is stated that
“the skuas may be considered as forming a conspicuous portion of the predaceous
division among the swimming-birds, as indicated by their powerful and hooked
beak and claws. Their food is fish, but they devour also the smaller water-birds
and their eggs, the flesh of whales, as well as other carrion, and are observed to
tear their prey in pieces, while holding it under their crooked talons. They rarely
take the trouble to fish for themselves, but, watching the smaller gulls and
terns while thus employed, they no sooner observe one to have been successful
than they immediately give chase, pursuing it with fury; and having obliged

518 GOLE, TRIBE:

it from fright to disgorge the recently-swallowed fish they descend to catch
it, being frequently so rapid and certain in their movements and aim as to
seize their prize before it reaches the water.” Of the two members of the group
breeding within the limits of the British Islands, the largest is the great skua
(S. catarrhactes), its only resort within those limits being the Shetlands.
Measuring upwards of 24 inches in length, the great skua has the two
central tail-feathers less than an inch longer than the others, and may be further
distinguished by the white bases to the flight-feathers; the general colour being
dark brown. It nests in a hole of about a foot in diameter, laying one or two eggs
on a lining of moss and heather. It is to this species that the two southern

POMATORHINE SKUA.

forms alluded to above are allied. Taking the other species in their order of size,
the long-tailed skua (S. parasiticus), which measures 22 inches in length, has the
two central tail-feathers upwards of 9 inches longer than the rest. Essentially an
Arctic species, this bird is but a very occasional visitor to the British Islands.
The pomatorhine skua (S. pomatorhinus), on the other hand, is a regular winter
visitor to the last-named area; it may be distinguished by the two central tail-
feathers being twisted upwards and exceeding the others in length by 4 inches,
the total length of the bird being 21 inches. Lastly, we have Richardson’s skua
(S. erepidatus), measuring an inch less than the last, and distinguished by the two
central tail-feathers being only 3 inches longer than the others. Circumpolar and
subarctic in its breeding-range, this species is much more abundant in Britain
than either of the others, nesting not only in the Hebrides, Orkneys and Shetlands,
but likewise on the mainland in the counties of Caithness and Sutherland.

ChE AcE i, XOX.

THE Tusn-Nosep Birps, Divina Brrps, anp PENGUINS,—
Orders TUBINARES, PYGoPODES, AND IMPENNES.

WITH the exception that they are all thoroughly aquatic in their habits, the tube-
nosed birds, as represented by the albatrosses, petrels, and shearwaters, have little
or nothing in common with the diving-birds, as exemplified by the auks, divers,
and grebes, or with the penguins; and it is merely as a matter of convenience that the
three groups are treated in the same chapter. They accordingly need no collective
notice, so that we at once proceed to the consideration of the leading features of
the first of the three groups.

Tube-Nosed The members of this order take their name from the circum-
Birds. stance that the external nostrils are produced into tubes lying upon

the surface of the beak and directed forwards; this feature being absolutely
peculiar, and serving at once to distinguish them from all other birds.
The horny sheathing of their beak is composed of several distinct pieces,
separated from one another by more or less marked grooves; and the tip of
the beak is sharply hooked. In the skull the palate is of the slit (schizognathous)
type; while its nasal apertures are oval, or holorhinal, and the angle of the lower
jaw is abruptly truncated behind. As in so many sea-birds, the upper aspect of
the skull has very deep grooves, which, however, are always separated from one
another on the forehead by a wide bar. The vertebrze of the back are articulated
with one another by the usual saddle-shaped surfaces. In the wings, which are
generally of great length, the humerus resembles the corresponding bone of
the gulls in having a well-marked process on the outer side of its lower extremity,
although the perforations in the basal bone of the second digit of the wing
characterising that order are wanting. The tibia, or leg-bone, differs from that
of all the birds hitherto considered in having a flattened plate-like crest projecting
upwards on its front aspect some distance above the level of the head of the bone.
The feet are characterised by the small size or even occasional absence of the first
toe, while the three front toes are completely webbed. In the plumage there is
a well-defined bare tract on each side of the neck, and the oil-gland is furnished
with a tuft of feathers. The young, which are born in a helpless condition, and
are fed for a considerable period in the nest by the parents, are clothed with down,
arranged in a somewhat complex manner.

In habits, all the tube-nosed birds are marine and carnivorous, subsisting
entirely on either carrion, cuttle-fish, or crustaceans, together with such refuse as
they can pick up. They are all birds of sustained and powerful flight; and, with
the exception of the members of one aberrant genus, are swimmers rather than

520 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS.

divers. In appearance several of them, more especially the fulmars, present a
marked similarity to the gulls; the plumage in this instance being of the grey-
and-white hue distinctive of that group. This resemblance must, however, be
regarded as a purely adaptive one, brought about by the needs of a similar mode
of existence, there being but little structural affinity between the members of
the two groups. Generally, the tube-nosed birds have a more or less dusky-hued
plumage, while they mostly differ from the chattering and screaming gulls by
their comparatively silent habits. Although found in the seas of all parts of
the world, the group is represented by the greatest number of species in the
Southern Hemisphere, which may consequently be regarded as its headquarters.
Very little is known of the group’s geological history, although a species of
shearwater has been stated to occur in the lower Miocene strata of France; the
same beds also yielding remains of an extinct genus (Hydrornis), which has been
tentatively assigned to this order.

THE ALBATROSSES.
Family DIOMEDEID2.

The albatrosses are distinguished by their tubular nostrils being placed on the
two sides of the beak, and widely separated from one another by the large median
portion of its horny sheath. They are further characterised by the extreme length
and narrowness of the wing, in which the humerus and ulna are greatly elongated ;
and also by the large number of quills in the wing, which may vary from thirty-nine
to fifty, or more than in any other birds. In the foot the first toe is wanting ; while
the skull is characterised by the absence of basipterygoid processes on the rostrum
of its inferior surface. All the albatrosses (which may be included in the single
genus Diomedea) are of large size, and mainly frequent the southern tropical and
subtropical seas, although one species ranges on the Pacific Coast of America as
far north as Alaska. The occurrence of remains of a fossil albatross in the
Pliocene deposits of the east coast of England is noteworthy.

By far the best known representative of the genus is the wandering albatross
(D. exulans), which is the one represented in our illustration. It belongs to a group
characterised by the absence of a groove in the horny sheath of the sides of the
lower jaw, and also by the length of the wing being equal to three or four times
that of the short and rounded tail. The span of wing varies from 10 to 12 feet,
while the average weight of the bird is only some 17 Ibs. The prevailing colour of
the plumage is yellowish white, with the quills dusky, and, except in very old
birds, the region of the back and the larger wing-coverts are irregularly barred
with blackish. The beak and feet are whitish. Although the true home of this
species is in the south seas, its wanderings occasionally extend to the north of the
Equator. The smaller sooty albatross (D. fuliginosa), of the southern oceans
generally, and the Pacific, alone represents a second section of the genus, in which
the horny sheath of the sides of the lower jaw is marked by a longitudinal groove,
while the wing is only about twice the length of the graduated tail. In the adult
the plumage of the neck, back, and upper- parts is dark ashy grey, becoming
lighter on the neck and fore-part of the back, where the tips of the feathers are

ALBATROSSES. 521

nearly white; the wings and tail are dark slaty; the beak, with the exception
of the grooves, is black ; and the legs and feet are pale reddish. In all the species
the young, after passing the white downy stage, are more or less sooty in colour ;
so that in coloration the sooty albatross is one of the least specialised forms.

The name albatross, it may be observed, is a corruption of the
Spanish word albatraz, meaning a gannet; and was applied to these
birds by the old voyagers, in conformity with that propensity to designate newly
discovered creatures by familiar titles, which is so characteristic of the un-
educated. All these birds are strictly oceanic in their habits, rarely visiting the

Habits.

ALBATROSSES NESTING (4 nat. size).

land except for the purpose of breeding, and then selecting remote islands, like
Tristan da Cunha, or even isolated rocks. Much has been written in regard to
the flight of the wandering albatross, but, according to Moseley, these birds are
by no means beautiful objects when seen following in the wake of a vessel, as the
long and narrow wings seem out of proportion to the body, while five out of every
six birds observed are in the brown immature plumage, and look dirty and
draggled. After referring to the marvellous powers of flight of the species just
mentioned, Gould observes, that although during calm or moderate weather, this
splendid bird “sometimes rests on the surface of the water, it is almost constantly
on the wing

and is equally at ease while passing over the glassy surface during
the stillest calm, or flying with meteor-like swiftness before the most furious gale ;

522 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS.

and the manner in which it just tops the raging billows and sweeps between
the gulfy waves has a hundred times called forth my wonder and admiration.
Although a vessel running before the wind frequently sails more than two
hundred miles in the twenty -four hours, and that for days together, still the
albatross has not the slightest difficulty in keeping up with the ship, but also
performs circles of many miles in extent, returning again to hunt up the wake
of the vessel for any substances thrown overboard.” Moseley states that these
birds make the utmost use of the momentum acquired by a few powerful strokes
of the wings, taking all possible advantage of the wind, and progressing largely
by a gliding movement. Still, however, he adds, they seem to move their wings
more frequently than is generally supposed. “They often have the appearance of
soaring for long periods after a ship without flapping their wings at all, but if they
be closely watched very short but extremely quick motions of the wings may be
detected. The appearance is rather as if the body of the bird dropped a very
short distance and rose again. The movements cannot be seen at all unless the
bird is exactly on a level with the eye.”

During the breeding-season, when the light-coloured species are in the full
beauty of their white plumage, albatrosses resort in large nuinbers to oceanic
islands and rocks. In Tristan da Cunha both the wandering albatross and the
smaller yellow-billed albatross (D. chlororhyncha) are found in numbers during the
breeding-season ; the latter being easily distinguished by its yellow gape and the
broad yellow stripe on the tip of the otherwise black beak. Commonly known to
the sailors as “mollymauks,” the yellow-billed albatrosses, according to Moseley,
“take up their abode in separate pairs anywhere about in the rookery, or under the
trees, where there are no penguins. They make a cylindrical nest of tufts of grass,
clay, and sedge, which stands up from the ground. The nest is neat and round,
there is a shallow concavity on the top for the bird to sit on, and the edge over-
hangs somewhat, the old birds undermining it, as the Germans said, during incuba-
tion, by pecking away the turf of which it is made.” The nest may be as much. as
fourteen inches in diameter, by ten in height; and at the proper season it contains
a single white ego, somewhat larger than that of a goose. During incubation the
egg is held in a kind of pouch, so that the bird has to be driven quite off the nest
before it can be ascertained whether or not an egg is present. In all cases the
sitting birds allow themselves to be approached without making the least move-
ment, and almost seem to have forgotten the use of their wings. The wandering
albatross builds a larger and more conical nest than the mollymauk, and its egg
is about five inches in length, or about equal in size to that of a swan. At its
larger end the ege has some specks of red, but is otherwise white. The male birds
commonly stand or sit near their brooding partners; and when the latter are
approached, they display their displeasure by savagely snapping their beaks at the
intruder.

THE PETRELS.

Family PROCELLARUD 2.

Next in size to the albatrosses is the giant petrel (Ossifraga gigantea), the
sole member of its genus, and the first representative of the second family of the

PETRELS. 523

order. All the members of this family differ from the albatrosses by the nasal
tubes being laid side by side upon the top of the beak. Generally the wings are
long, but the number of quills does not exceed thirty-nine, and is usually about
thirty, although occasionally reduced to twenty. The hind toe, although sometimes
minute, is generally present; and there are usually basipterygoid processes on the
rostrum of the inferior aspect of the skull. The giant petrel is distinguished from
all the other members of the family by its large size, and by the length of the beak

THE GIANT PETREL.

exceeding that of the metatarsus. The beak is very stout, and has the nasal tubes
of great length, and its outer sheath so produced as to reach beyond the proper
apertures of the nostrils, thus giving the appearance of a single nostril. The tail
is characterised by the presence of sixteen feathers. In general appearance and
size this bird is not unlike some of the smaller dark-coloured albatrosses, its total
length being about 32 inches, and the span of the wing 66 inches. Although
pale-hued individuals are far from uncommon, the general colour of the plumage is
typically dull slaty brown, becoming paler on the face, throat, and under-parts, and
some of the feathers of the upper-parts tinged with chocolate, while those of the

524 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS.

back, as well as the wing-coverts, have paler greyish margins. The beak is yellowish
horn-colour; and the legs and feet are greyish black.

Commonly known to sailors by the name of nelly, break - bones, or
stinker, the giant petrel is widely distributed over the temperate and high
southern latitudes, occasionally wandering to a considerable distance north of the
Equator, and in power of flight is fully equal to the albatrosses. In habits it differs
considerably from the latter, subsisting chiefly on the blubber and flesh of dead
seals and whales, as well as the bodies of other birds. Moseley, who compares it in
these respects to a vulture, writes that in Kerguelen, this petrel “soars all day
along the coast on the look-out for food. No sooner is an animal killed than
numbers appear as if by magic, and the birds are evidently well acquainted with
the usual proceedings of the sealers—who kill the sea-elephant, take off the skin
and blubber, and leave the carease. They settled down here all round in groups
at a short distance, a dozen or so together, to wait, and began fighting amongst
themselves, as if to settle which was to have first bite.” When gorged, they are
quite unable to fly; and, like other members of the family, if disturbed they have
an unpleasant habit of disgorging an ill-smelling oily fluid. These birds breed on
Kerguelen and Prince Edward’s Island, where they lay a single, dirty, white egg
ina natural hollow of the ground. The newly-hatched young are covered with a
long grey down; and later on the nestlings, when approached, are stated to squirt
from their nostrils an oily fluid to a distance of six or eight feet, the old birds re-
maining a short distance away.

In the Arctic regions and other parts of the Northern Hemi-
sphere, the place of the giant petrel is taken by the gull-like fulmar

Fulmar Petrel.

(Fulmarus glacialis), which is likewise the only well-defined representative of its
genus. Of much smaller size than the giant petrel, the fulmar differs by the beak
being inferior in length to the metatarsus, and the proportionately shorter and
stouter nasal tubes, in which the septum between the two nostrils extends to within
a short distance of the orifice; the tail-feathers, moreover, are either twelve or
fourteen in number. The fulmar measures about 19 inches in length, and displays
great variation as regards colour. In the typical form, however, the head and neck
are white, most of the upper-parts, as well as the tail-feathers, pearl-grey, the
primaries slaty grey, and the breast and under-parts white. The iris is dark
brown, the beak yellow at the tip, with yellowish white sides, and a greenish tinge
at the base above, while the legs and feet are pale grey. A grey phase is also
commonly met with, in which the head and neck, as well as the greater portion
of both the upper and under-parts are ashy brown, with the back and wings
somewhat darker than the rest. The fulmar breeds in the boreal regions of both
hemispheres; but some authorities consider that in the North Pacific and Behring Sea
it is replaced by two distinct species. In autumn and winter, the fulmar is a by
no means uncommon, although probably involuntary visitor to the southern shores
of Britain, and has been recorded as far south as the Mediterranean.

In habits, the fulmar is very like its larger cousin, nesting in hollows in the
ground, instead of in deep burrows like the shearwaters, and feeding largely on
whale-blubber and refuse. Scoresby writes that these petrels “are remarkably
easy and swift on the wing, flying to windward in the highest storms, and resting

PETRELS. 525

on the water in great composure in the most tremendous seas; but it is observed
that in heavy gales they fly extremely low, generally skimming along by the
surface of the water. They are extremely greedy of the fat of the whale, and
though few should be seen when a whale is about being captured, yet, as soon as
the flensing process commences, they rush in from all quarters, and frequently
accumulate to many thousands. They then occupy the greasy track of the ship;
and being audaciously greedy, fearlessly advance within a few yards of the men

FULMAR PETRELS (3 nat. size).

employed in cutting up the whale.” Highly gregarious during the breeding-season,
the fulmars then collect on the turfy ledges of the St. Kilda cliffs in thousands.
The single white egg is laid either in a slight nest of dried grass, or on the bare
ground; and although the birds sometimes excavate a hollow of a few inches deep
in the turf, they as often nest on its surface.

Nearly allied to the fulmar is the silver-grey petrel (Thalassoica
glacialoides) of the Pacific and Southern Atlantic, distinguished by
its more slender beak, in which the nasal tubes are shorter and more depressed, with
their upper border concave. This species extends nearly as far south as the
Antarctic pack-ice, where it is replaced by the snowy petrel (Pagodroma nivea),—a

Allied Genera.

526 TOBENOSTED VBI:

pure white species of the size of a pigeon, with a short and weak bill, The “Cape
hen” (Majaqueus equinoctialis) and the spectacled petrel (MI. conspicillatus) are
larger southern species, of the size of the fulmar, with blackish brown plumage.
The beak is longer than in the latter, with shorter nasal tubes, of which the two
apertures look directly forwards. While the Cape hen is wholly blackish brown,
the spectacled petrel has characteristic white bands across the head and throat.

Nearly cosmopolitan in their distribution, the numerous group of
medium -sized dark-coloured petrels, known as shearwaters and
included in the genus Puffinus, are characterised by the length and slenderness of
their beaks, in which the short and depressed nasal tubes open by two separate
orifices, generally directed obliquely upwards. The wings are long and pointed,
with the first quill the longest; the graduated tail consists of twelve feathers ;
and the first toe is rudimentary.

Shearwaters may be divided into two groups, according as to whether the
under-parts are white, or are dusky like the back. Among the better-known
representatives of the former group we may mention the cinereous shearwater (P.
kuhlt) of the Mediterranean, Western Europe, and the East Atlantic, characterised
by its stout beak, circular nostrils, and brownish grey upper plumage. The great
shearwater (P. major), of the Atlantic Ocean generally, which measures 18 inches
in length, and is an occasional autumn visitor to the British Islands, is a member of
the same group, distinguished by its more slender beak, in which the nostrils form
longitudinal ovals; the general colour of the upper-parts being sooty greyish brown,
with paler tips to the feathers of the back. The commonest British representative
of the group is the smaller Manx shearwater (P. anglorum), which measures only

Shearwaters.

14 inches in length, and has a uniformly blackish upper plumage, without pale tips
to any of the feathers; it frequents the whole of the North Atlantic, although
more abundant on the eastern than on the western side. Another species of this
group is the dusky shearwater (P. obscwrus), which is smaller than the last, with a
more slender beak, and a deeper black to the upper plumage. Common to both
the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, this species has been obtained from such widely
remote regions as the Bahamas, the Galapagos Islands, and New Zealand. Lastly,
we may take the sooty shearwater (P. griseus) as an example of the second group.
This species, which may attain a length of 18 inches, is of a uniform dusky tint
above and slightly paler beneath; its range being nearly or quite as extensive as
that of the preceding species, and stragglers occasionally reaching the British Isles.
Capped Petreland Allied to the shearwaters is the genus Mstrelata, as represented
Bulwer’s Petrel. hy the capped petrel (Z@. hesitata) and certain other species. It is
characterised by the great compression of the rather short beak, in which the
terminal curved “nail” is of very large size, and the short and very prominent
nasal tubes. The long and pointed wings extend when folded considerably beyond
the graduated tail, and the hind-toe is small and elevated. This species inhabits
the warmer parts of the Atlantic, straying occasionally to England and France.
While the forehead, the sides of the head, the neck, the upper tail-coverts, and the
base of the tail are white, the crown of the head has an isolated black cap, and the
upper-parts are bistre-brown; the whole length being 16 inches. The uniformly
blackish brown Bulwer’s petrel (Bulweria columbina) is a much smaller bird of

PETRELS. B27

some 103 inches in length, and is the sole representative of its genus. It is more
slenderly formed and longer-tailed than the last; frequenting the Atlantic in the
neighbourhood of the Canaries and Madeira, and laying in holes or under the
shelter of rocks.

From its superficial resemblance to a dark -coloured pigeon,
the bird properly known as the Cape petrel (Daption capensis) is
commonly designated in the colony the Cape pigeon. It represents a genus
distinguished from those last mentioned by the presence of fourteen tail-feathers ;
and further characterised by the beak being broad and depressed, except at its tip,

Cape Petrel.

CAPE PETRELS SWIMMING (i nat. size).

where the nail is small, and occupies less than a third of the total length. The
nasal tubes are depressed and concave, and are separated by a considerable interval
from the terminal nail. In the leg, the metatarsus is shorter than the third toe,
although much longer than the beak. This bird is of medium size and is easily
recognised by the sooty head and neck, the mingled dusky and white plumage of
the upper-parts, and the immaculate white of that below.

The Cape, or, as it is often called, pintado petrel, is an inhabitant of the South
Atlantic and South Pacific oceans, occasionally straggling northwards of the
Equator. In the Antarctic seas these birds are frequently met with in vast
numbers; and an observer who accompanied a whaling expedition in the winter
of 1892-93, writes that so eager were they for any scraps thrown over the ship's

528 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS.

side, that any number of them could have been caught with small hand-nets only
large enough to contain one at a time, and many of them were thus captured by the
crew. In stormy weather they not unfrequently come close into land. When grace-
fully hovering in the air, the bird may be seen to make a sudden dart downwards to
the water, in order to secure some floating morsel of food it has espied, and on
such occasions will dive readily. It is also said to throw up its tail after the
manner of a duck, and thus to fish up bits of food from slight depths. When
caught and placed on deck, it has to run some distance with outstretched wings
before being able to rise; and when first hauled in or handled, invariably ejects
from its mouth or nostrils a reddish oily fluid. These petrels breed on Tristan da
Cunha and Heard Island, and probably also on some of the Antarctic Islands; on
Heard Island their nests are made in holes in low basaltic cliffs.

The dove-petrels (Prion) are much smaller birds, represented by
numerous species in the southern seas, and typically characterised by
the great breadth of the base of their beaks. One of the best known is the
common dove-petrel (P. desolatus), which is a small grey species with a broad
boat-like beak, furnished with fine horny lamelle projecting inwards from each
side. It flies like a swallow, and may be seen in flocks about a ship, or
cruising over the sea, or attendant on a whale to pick up the droppings from its
mouth. Hence it is termed by sealers the whale-bird. Its food, as that of all
the petrels except the carrion ones, seems to consist of the very abundant surface

Dove-Petrels.

animals of the south seas, especially of small crustaceans. It breeds on Kerguelen,
laying its single white egg in a burrow which may be as much as a yard and a
half in depth. The broad-billed blue petrel (P. vittatus) is another well-known
representative of this genus.
The Storm- The tiny storm-petrel (Procellaria pelagica)—the smallest of
Petrels. = British web-footed birds—is the first representative of several genera
of petrels, readily distinguished from all the foregoing by their diminutive pro-
portions; the length of wing not reaching 7 inches. The storm -petrels are
characterised as a genus by their very small size, by the even or rounded tail, by
the length of the metatarsus being approximately equal to that of the middle
toe with its claw, and by the presence of a white patch on the rump. The
whole length of the true storm-petrel—the “Mother Carey’s Chicken” of the
sailors—is rather less than 6 inches; the general colour of the plumage being
sooty black.

This petrel is confined to the more northerly portions of the Atlantic, and
except during the prevalence of severe storms and in the breeding-season, is but
seldom seen in the neighbourhood of land. Essentially a child of the ocean, it is
frequently met with far out at sea, where it will follow vessels for considerable
distances, hovering over the surface of the water in a manner which has been
compared to the flutterings of a large butterfly. The breeding-places of the storm-
petrel include the Atlantic coasts of Europe, and portions of the shores of the
Mediterranean ; but, according to Mr. Ridgway, it is not known to nest on any part
of America. The single white egg is deposited in a burrow of considerable length ;
and in the island of Soa it is stated that the burrows of several pairs often diverge
from a common vestibule.

PETRELS. 520

The small wedge-tailed petrel (Halocypetna microsoma), of the
coast of Lower California, is the sole representative of a genus
distinguished from the above by the tail beg much rounded, the metatarsus
exceeding the length of the third toe, and by the absence of any white on the rump.
Leach’s petrel (Cymochorhea leuwcorrhoa) belongs to an allied genus, comprising
several somewhat larger species readily characterised by the deeply forked tail,

Allied Petrels.

STORM-PETRELS ON THE WAVES (4 nat. size).

in which the feathers have very broad tips, while there may or may not be a white
rump-patch. The species named has a very wide distribution, being common to
both the Atlantic and Pacific. A fourth genus, represented by the fork - tailed
petrel (Oceanodroma furcata) and Hornby’s petrel (O. hornbyz), of the North
Pacific, differs by the feathers of the forked tail being scalloped at the end, there
being no white patch on the rump, and the plumage being either uniform bluish
ashy or grey, with the forehead cheeks, or collar on the throat, and the under-parts
white.

VOL. IV.—3

4
>

530 DIVING BIRDS.

The preceding members of the family collectively constitute
a subfamily characterised by the presence of at least thirteen
secondary quills, by the metatarsus being covered with small hexagonal plates,
by the sharp and curved claws, and by the leg-bones being shorter than the
wing. On the other hand, the small Wilson’s petrel, together with some allied
species, forms a second subfamily distinguished by the presence of only ten
secondaries, by the metatarsus being either booted or covered in front with large
oblique seutes, by the flat and broad claws, and by the leg-bones exceeding
the wings in length. In all the group the aperture of the straight nasal tubes
is single and circular. Wilson’s petrel (Oceanites oceanicus), which is somewhat
larger than the storm-petrel, inhabits the Atlantic Ocean and Australian seas;
while the other members of the genus are exclusively southern. The general
colour of its plumage is dusky, with the quills and tail-feathers black. As regards
their muscles, these petrels are highly specialised, and in the boot-like plates
covering the metatarsus, they differ from all other water-birds. The white-bellied
petrel (Cymodroma grallaria), of the tropical seas, has an even tail, and the
metatarsus about twice the length of the third toe, exclusive of the claw. The
plumage is parti-coloured.

The Diving Like the albatrosses, all the petrels hitherto mentioned are

Petrel. = essentially flying and swimming-birds, which dive but little. There
is, however, a remarkable aberrant petrel inhabiting the Straits of Magellan which
differs from all the other members of the order in its short wings and diving
habits; while it is further distinguished by the nasal tubes being vertical and
opening superiorly; the first toe being also absent. This bird (Pelecanoides
wrinatrix), Which many ornithologists regard as the representative of a distinct
family, is, indeed, in habits and appearance so like an auk, that, as Darwin
remarks, when seen from a distance, either on the wing, or diving and swimming,
it would undoubtedly be mistaken for one of these birds. Nevertheless, both in
structure and plumage, it is essentially a petrel; and we must accordingly regard
its auk-like appearance and habits as special modifications for a peculiar mode of
life. These birds, according to Moseley, may be seen in calm weather in Royal
Sound floating in immense numbers on the water, the flocks sometimes extending
over acres, and causing the sea to appear literally black. They dive with extreme
rapidity, and when disturbed, rise and flutter a short distance along the surface,
after which they again drop and dive.

Wilson’s Petrel.

THE Divina BIRDS.
Order PYGOPODES.

This group admits of much less concise definition than the preceding, unless
indeed we follow the example of many modern ornithologists in removing
from it the auks. It has been proposed to transfer the latter to the gulls,
with which they agree in having cup-and-ball articulations to the vertebrae
of the back; but since it is certain that all the primitive birds had cup-like
articular surfaces to their vertebra, there seems no reason why the cup-and-ball

AUKS. 53t

structure should not have been independently acquired in two distinct groups.
Moreover, the auks differ from the gulls in the absence of any projecting process
to the lower end of the humerus.

In this wider sense the diving-birds are characterised externally by the
extremely backward position of their short legs, in which the front toes are either
completely webbed or lobed, the first toe being either absent or rudimentary. In
the skull the palate is of the cleft (schizognathous) type, the lower jaw is abruptly
truncated behind, and there are large grooves for the reception of glands on the
forehead, which are separated from one another merely by a narrow ridge.
The humerus has no process at its lower end; but the tibia has an upwardly
projecting crest, which may unite with the knee-cap or patella to form a long
spike projecting upwards in front of the femur. The young are born covered with
down or feathers, and are soon active. In the plumage, the spinal feather-tract is
either forked on the upper part of the back, or not defined on the neck; while the
oil-gland is invariably tufted. The wings are relatively short; and the beak is
comparatively straight and often much compressed, with its horny sheath generally
composed of but a single piece.

Contrasted with the other ordinal groups in which the palate is of the cleft
type, the divers are readily distinguished from the tube-nosed birds by the normal
conformation of their nostrils, their active young, and the absence of a projecting
process to the lower end of the humerus; the latter feature, together with the
more marked upward extension of the crest of the tibia, and the lack of any
perforations in the bones of the second digit of the wing, differentiating them from
the gulls. They are not likely to be confounded with the Limicolw or any of the
remaining orders; from all of which, except certain of the group named, they are
distinguished by the presence of grooves on the front of the skull. The group
may be divided into three families, of which the second and third are much more
closely related to one another than they are to the first.

THE AUKS.
Family ALCIDZ.

The auks are characterised externally by the absence of the first toe;
while in the skeleton the crest of the tibia is relatively short, the metatarsus is
not laterally compressed, and the vertebre of the back are articulated together
by cup-and-ball jomts. The front toes are fully webbed and furnished with ©
sharp, claw-like nails; the tail, although short, is normal, and the beak,
although frequently much compressed, deep, and short, is subject to great
variation in form. The family includes the true auks, guillemots, pigmy-auks,
and puffins; all of which are marine, and confined to the colder regions of the
Northern Hemisphere.

The typical members of the family are characterised by the large
size of the compressed beak, marked in front by oblique grooves,
and feathered at its base close up to the slit-like nostrils, which are almost
concealed by a dense velvety feathering, completely fillmg the fossee in which

The True Auks.

32 DIVAN G SBLLeDyS:

they are situated. The wings are more or less short; and the tail is graduated,
with its component feathers pointed.

On account of its extinction within the present century, as well
as from being the largest representative of the family, and the only
bird in the Northern Hemisphere incapable of flight, the great auk, or garefowl

Great Auk.

GREAT AUK (} nat. size).

(Alcea ampennis), is of great interest. In common with many other northern
sea-birds, it was formerly known as the penguin,—a name now transferred to the
well-known birds of the Southern Hemisphere. In size, the great auk may be
roughly compared to a goose, its total length being about 32 inches. It was
especially characterised by the rudimentary condition of the wings, which, owing

AUKS. 533

to the reduction in the length of the ulna and bones of the digits, were quite
useless in flight; while it was further distinguished by the beak being equal in
length to the head,.and furnished with numerous grooves on its lower, as well
as on its upper mandible. In colour, the plumage of the head, neck, and back was
black, while the under-parts, as well as a characteristic spot in front of the eye,
were white.

Confined to the North Atlantic, and ranging as far north as Iceland on the
one side and Greenland on the other, the great auk was a migratory species, which
in winter wandered as far south as the Bay of Biscay and the shores of Virginia.
Both in Greenland and Norway it appears to have been always rare; and its chief
or only breeding-places were three rocky islands near Iceland, known as the
Garefowl Skerries or Geirfuglasker, and Funk Island off the Newfoundland Coast.
By the subsidence in the spring of 1830 of one of these islets, which as being the
most inaccessible, was the favourite breeding-place, the birds were driven to one
nearer the shore, where they were more easily approached; and in the course of
the next fourteen years the species became extinct in Europe, the last pair having
been killed in the summer of 1844. The existence of the garefowl on Funk Island
was discovered about 1534, when the birds were so numerous as to be reckoned, it
is said, by thousands; but incessant persecution for more than two centuries
eventually brought about its extermination, which probably took place almost
contemporaneously with its disappearance from Europe. On Funk Island, as Mr.
Lucas remarks, it was customary for the crews of several vessels to spend the
summer for the sole purpose of killing garefowl for the sake of their feathers.
Although we have but traditions of these expeditions, it is indisputable that stone
pens were erected into which the birds were driven like sheep, that they were
slain by millions, and that their bodies were left to rot where they lay, while for
some purpose or other frequent and long-continued fires were lighted on the island.
The records of this slaughter are still extant in the numbers of garefowl bones to
be met with in the soil of Funk Island; such relies, together with a few skins,
and a number of egg-shells, being all that remain to us of the finest of the auks.

That the garefowl was generally a gregarious bird, more especially during the
breeding-season, is evident from the foregoing; but it is stated that solitary pairs
were occasionally found nesting with guillemots and razorbills. Although useless
for flight, the wings were admirably suited as paddles; and the swimming and
diving powers of the bird were probably unrivalled, its migrations being more
extensive than those of many of its relatives which possess the power of flight.
From the accounts of. the natives of Iceland, it appears that the garefowl swam
with its head elevated and the neck retracted, and that, when pursued, instead of
flapping along the water, it immediately dived. As in allied species, the eggs are
relatively large in proportion to the size of the bird, often measuring just over 5
inches in length; and they have also the same elongated form, with one end much
larger than the other. They have a creamy-white ground-colour, marked with
black or brown streaks and blotches, with underlying grey patches.

The common English razorbill (A. torda), which is the only other
representative of the genus, differs from the garefowl not only by its
greatly inferior size (length about 17 inches), but likewise by its well-developed

Razorbill.

534 DIVING BIRDS.

wings and its relatively shorter beak, in which there are but two or three grooves
on the lower mandible, and these indistinctly marked. Lacking the large white
spot in front of the eye characterising the great auk, the adult razorbill in summer
has a narrow white line extending from the beak to the eye. While in summer
the chin and throat of the adult are brown, and the head, hind-neck, and upper-
parts black, with the under-parts white, in the winter dress the white extends
upwards to the throat, chin, and sides of the head, and the plumage of the upper-
parts is browner. The razorbill is common to the coasts and islands of both sides
of the North Atlantic, ranging as far north as latitude 70° in Greenland, while
in winter it reaches Gibraltar, from whence it wanders a considerable distance up
the Mediterranean. Resident throughout the year in the British seas, it breeds on
all suitable rocky coasts, from the north of France to the North Cape, generally in
large colonies. Concerning its breeding-habits, we find it stated in the third
edition of Yarrell’s British Birds that “about the middle or latter part of March
in the South of England, and early in April in the northern portions of our islands,
the razorbills, guillemots, and puffins converge to particular points, where, from
the numbers that congregate, and the bustle apparent among them, confusion of
interests might be expected. It will, however, be found that, as a rule, the
guillemots occupy one station or line of ledges on the rock; the razorbills another ;
the puffins a third; the kittiwake-gulls a fourth; whilst the most inaccessible crags
seem to be left for the use of the herring-gulls. The razorbills generally select
the higher and rougher ledges, and they are partial to crevices, their eggs being
sometimes deposited so far in that it is no easy matter to get at them; at other
times they lay their eggs on the broader shelves along with the guillemots, but
not so closely together.”

Closely allied, both as regards structure, the colour, and seasonal
chance of their plumage, and habits, to the razorbills, the guillemots
differ by their more slender and straighter beak, in which there are no oblique
transverse grooves, while the upper mandible is slightly curved near the point,
and has a small notch on the side. The basal nostrils are partially closed by a
membrane, which is itself partly feathered. There is still some degree of
uncertainty as to the number of species of the typical guillemots, some writers,
like Mr. Seebohm, recognising but one, while others, like Dr. Sharpe, admit
several. Whether, however, we regard them as species or varieties, all the forms
are characterised by the white plumage of the under-parts; this white area in
the summer dress stopping short at the base of the throat, but in winter extending
upwards, as in the razorbill, to the throat, chin, and sides of the head. In the
typical form of the common guillemot (Uria troile) which inhabits both sides of
the North Atlantic, the beak is of considerable length, and the head is of a
uniform smoky brown. It is replaced in the Pacific by a somewhat larger form,
known as the Californian guillemot. Both in the Atlantic and Pacific there are
also certain guillemots, like the one in the foreground of the cut, characterised
by the presence of a white streak extending backwards from the eye, and a white
ring round the eye itself. Formerly regarded as indicating a distinct species,
these ringed guillemots, as they are commonly ealled, are now generally con-
sidered to be merely sports. Pallas’s guillemot, of Behring Sea and other parts

Guillemots.

AUKS. 535

of the North Pacific is the largest representative of the second modification of the
group, in which the beak is much shorter and deeper than in the preceding, while
the nape of the neck and back of the head are black like the back. A portion of
the base of the cutting-edge of the mandible is light-coloured. Finally, we have
the so-called Briinnich’s or polar guillemot (U. bruennichz), of the North Atlantic
and Arctic Oceans, in which the size is smaller, and the whole of the cutting-edge
of the upper mandible yellowish white. Mr. Seebohm considers, however, that
Briinnich’s guillemot is so inseparably connected by the Californian form with

COMMON GUILLEMOTS (4 nat. size).

the common guillemot, as to render it impossible to regard them as more than
varieties of a single species. Whatever diversity of opinion may obtain as to the
distinctness of the above-mentioned forms from the common guillemot, there can
be none as to that of the black guillemot (U. gryile), which is referred, indeed, by
some writers to a separate genus. It is a smaller bird than the common guillemot,
from which it is at once distinguished by the whole of the under-parts being black
in the summer dress; the beak being relatively short. Typically an inhabitant of
the North Atlantic, it is represented in the cireumpolar seas by a variety dis-
tinguished by the larger size of the conspicuous white patch on the wings. In
the North Pacific it is replaced by the pigeon-guillemot (U. colwmba), character-

536 DIVING BIRDS.

ised by the under surface of the wing being grey, instead of smoky white. The
typical form of this species has a large white wing-patch; but there are two
varieties (carbo and motzfeldi), severally distinguished by the presence or absence
of white on the head, in which the wing is uniformly black on the outer side.

All the guillemots are very similar in their mode of life, being essentially
oceanic birds, which only visit the rocks during the breeding-season, and are only
found inland when driven there by stress of weather; while they are markedly
sociable and gregarious. Their food consists of fish, supplemented by various
crustaceans ; the common species being especially partial to the fry of herrings
and pilchards, which are captured at night in the open sea. Rapid, though
heavy and laboured in its flight, the common guillemot is enabled to reach the
summits of almost inaccessible cliffs for the purpose of breeding, where, as in the
Farne Islands and at Flamborough, it congregates in myriads. On the ledges of
the precipitous cliffs near Bempton—another noted breeding-place—the guillemots,
are sometimes so densely crowded together as to remind one of a swarm of bees.
The breeding-season in Britain commences in May and lasts till August; and
while the other species agree with the rest of the family in laying but a single
egg, the black guillemot deposits two. The eggs may be laid either on the bare
ledges of rock or in fissures; and while at times several may be found together,
at other times they lie singly. In coloration, guillemots’ eggs are remarkable for
their extraordinary variability. According to the writer last-mentioned, “the
ground-colours are cream, white, blue, and yellowish green, dark and clear pea-
green, and reddish and purplish brown, with every conceivable intermediate tint.
Some are irregularly blotched, others are fantastically streaked with browns,
pinks, or greys in endless variety, whilst a few are spotless or nearly so.” Some
closely resemble those of the razorbill, from which they may always be
distinguished by appearing creamy-white instead of green when viewed by
transmitted hght.

Short-Billed The North Pacific is inhabited by six or seven much smaller

Guillemots. ouillemots, characterised by their very short beaks, of which the tip
is not decurved. These constitute the genus Brachyrhamphus, and while in some
species, like the marbled guillemot (B. marmoratus), the front of the metatarsus
is reticulated, in others, such as the black-throated guillemot (6. antiquus), it is
covered in front with large scutes.

Breeding solely within the limits of the Arctic Circle, the little
auk, or rotche (ergulus alle) is an Atlantic species, which only visits
the British Isles in winter, and is even then far more common in the Orkneys and
Shetlands than in the south. It is a very small bird, measuring only about 84
inches in length, and differing from all the members of the family by the shortness
of the symphysis of the lower mandible, in which the angle of the chin is much
nearer to the tip of the beak than to the nostrils, instead of the reverse. The
whole beak is shorter than the head, very thick, and broader than high at the
base; the profile being arched, and the tips of both mandibles notched, while the
upper one is faintly grooved. The rounded and lateral nostrils are placed at the
base of the beak and partially covered with feathers. In coloration, the little auk
very closely resembles the guillemot; the head, chin, and throat, as well as the

The Little Auk.

AUKS. 537

upper-parts being mostly black, while the remainder of the lower-parts, a spot
over the eye, the tips of the secondaries, and the margins of the scapulars are
white. In the winter plumage, on the
other hand, the white area includes the
throat, chin, and sides of the head.

The little auk ranges in the Arctic
regions from Novaia Zemlia and Spitz-
bergen to Greenland, migrating south-
wards in winter as far as New Jersey on
the one side of the Atlantic, and to the
Canaries on the other. In its breeding-
places, where it appears in May, it con-
gregates in countless thousands, if not in
millions. The single bluish white ege

is laid so deep among the loose fragments
of rock that it can only be reached with
difficulty, and the young leave the
breeding-places for the open sea before
they can fly. An expert diver and a
strong swimmer, the rotche feeds chiefly Ee ee

on crustaceans and marine worms. In

spite, however, of its oceanic habits, it appears to be ill-adapted to fight against
the storms of winter, during the prevalence of which it is frequently driven far
inland; and in the severe winter of 1894-95 hundreds were thus driven into

England.

Pacific Related to the rotche are a number of small auk-like birds from
Pigmy Auks. the Northern Pacific, all of which differ from that species in having
the chin-angle nearer to the
nostril than to the base of the
beak. Among these are the tufted
auk (Simorhynchus cristatellus),
remarkable for the forwardly
curving tufts of feathers at the
root of the beak; the knob-
billed auk (S. pusillus), taking its
name from the presence in summer
of a knob at the base of the beak
which disappears in winter; and
the parrot-auk (S. psittaculis).
Still more remarkable is the horn-
billed auk (Cerorhyncha mono-

cerata), in which the compressed

HEAD OF TUFTED AUK.
(From Guillemard’s Cruise of the Marchesa.)

and curved beak is longer than in
the preceding forms, and is pro-
vided at the base with a single horn-like knob above the nostrils, which is shed
in winter. All these birds have much the same habits as the more typical auks,

538 DIVING-BIRDS.

generally frequenting sheltered bays when the weather is rough. The horn-billed
auk breeds as far south as California and Northern Japan.

Among the most
grotesque of all birds are
the puffins, or sea-parrots, whose
enormous, compressed, and brilliantly-
coloured beaks seem out of all pro-
portion to the size of their heads.
Represented only by the common
Arctic puffin (Fratercula arctica) in
the Atlantic, the genus attains a greater
development in that headquarters of
the auk family, the Northern Pacific,
where we meet with the horned puffin
(F. corniculata), characterised by the
great development of the horny process
arising from the upper eyelid, and
the handsome whiskered puffin (7.
cirrhata), distinguished by the pendent
—— crest of feathers at the back of the

==> = head, and the absence of grooves on
the lower mandible. As a group, the
puffins are distinguished from all the
other members of the family by the claw of the second toe being considerably
longer and more curved than the other two, as well as by the presence of a
rosette-like prominence at the angle of the mouth. They are further characterised
by the circumstance that
the feathers at the base of
the beak stop short of the
nostrils, and likewise by the
peculiarity that the basal
portion of the greatly com-
pressed beak is furnished

Pufiins.

KNOB-BILLED AUKS,

during the breeding-season
with one or more sheath-like,
deciduous pieces of an
orange-red colour which are
shed in winter. The much
compressed beak is shorter

than the head, and consider- TTA OK THIRD DUNE

ably deeper than long, with (From Guillemard’s Cruise of the Marchesa.)

the profile of both mandibles

strongly arched, and the ridge of the upper one forming a sharp edge, while there
are oblique transverse grooves on one or both mandibles. The common puffin may be
compared in size to a teal, the average length in the southern portion of its habitat
being about 12 inches, although in the Arctic regions it attains somewhat larger

DDYLVETERS: 539

dimensions, and has the beak deeper. Resembling the guillemot in general colora-
tion, it differs in undergoing no seasonal change of plumage, and in the white area
occupying the whole of the sides of the head, while the throat is encircled by a
dark gorget. The beak has its
terminal portion carmine-red, behind
which are bands of slaty grey and
yellow, with a red one on the lower
mandible. With the annual moult
both the sheath of the basal half of
the beak and the warty red skin at
the angle of the mouth are shed.
In Europe the breeding-range of
this species extends from the North
Cape to the mouth of the Tagus,
while in winter the birds wander as
far south as Gibraltar, and thence
pass up the Mediterranean to the
Italian coasts. On the opposite side
of the Atlantic the winter range
reaches as far south as New York.
Essentially oceanic in their
habits, puffins are gregarious at all
seasons, and fly rapidly somewhat
after the manner of ducks. Swim-
ming easily, and diving with the
expertness characteristic of the
family, they feed chiefly on the fry
of fish ; while their single egg is laid COMMON PUFFIN.
either in a burrow in the ground or
among the deep clefts of rocks. In colour, the egg is dull white, faintly spotted
with grey and brown; and in the presence of these markings it forms one of many
exceptions to the general rule that eggs laid in holes are white. From this cireum-
stance, Mr. Seebohm suggests that these birds have only taken to laying in
burrows comparatively recently ; the faintness of the markings of the eggs being
perhaps indicative that they are in the course of disappearance.

THE DIVERS.
Family COLYMBID.

In common with the grebes, the divers (Colymbus) differ from the auks (and
thereby from all other birds) in that the crest of the tibia is prolonged upwards
to unite with the knee-cap, or patella, thus forming a spike-like projection at the
extremity of the bone, which must afford a most efficient lever for the muscles in
the act of swimming. The two families are further characterised by the saddle-
like form of the articular surfaces of the vertebra of the back, by the presence of

540 DIVING BILD, S.

a small first toe, and the absence of bare tracts on the sides of the neck; while the
metatarsus is compressed and knife-hke. In the divers the three front toes are
fully webbed, and furnished with sharp claw-like nails; the number of primary
quills in the wings is eleven; the tail, although short, is normal; and there are
but fourteen or fifteen vertebree in the neck. Moreover, the beak is long, sharp,
and compressed; while the lores are completely feathered. Apart from the
question of their relationship to the auks, the peculiar structure of the tibia
seems clearly to indicate an intimate affinity between the divers and the grebes.
Although an extinct representative of the family (Colymboides) has left its
remains in the Miocene deposits of the Continent, the existing divers, of which
there are three well-marked species confined to the Arctic and cooler regions of the
Northern Hemisphere, are included in the single genus Colymbus. The divers, al-
though more slenderly
formed, have some-
what the appearance of
geese when seen on the

water; but on land,
owing to the backward

situation of their legs,
are widely different.
In plumage, the two
sexes are alike; but
the winter dress differs

considerably from that
of summer, as do the
young from the adult.
The typical representa-
tive of the genus is the
= = great northern diver
———— (C. glacialis), attaining
GREAT NORTHERN DIVER. a length of some 33

inches, and character-

ised by its glossy black head and neck, the presence of two gorgets of velvety black
and white stripes on the throat, and the belts of white spots of varying size crossing
the dark back; the under-parts being white. Not uncommon—especially in an
immature state—on the British coasts, and thence wandering as far south as the
Mediterranean, this diver breeds in Iceland, Greenland, and North-Eastern Canada ;
while in North-Eastern Asia and Western Arctic America it is replaced by a larger
variety (C. adamsi), distinguished by the white or yellow hue of its beak. Next
in point of size is the black-throated diver (CL arcticus), which does not exceed 26
inches in length, and is characterised by its light grey head, the purplish black
patch, surmounted with a black-and-white striped gorget on the throat, and the
presence of two elongated areas on the black back between the shoulders, as well

as others on the scapulars, marked by transverse white bands formed by nearly
confluent square spots. The breeding-area of this species would seem to extend
from the Hebrides and Seandinavia across Arctic Asia over the greater part of

DIVERS. 541

America, although it does not include Greenland, Iceland, or the Orkneys. Some
writers regard, indeed, a variety inhabiting the Pacific Coast of America as a
distinct species, although this seems scarcely justifiable. Finally, the smallest, as
well as the commonest species is the cireumpolar red-throated diver (C. septentri-
onalis), so named from the presence of a patch of reddish grey extending down
the throat of the adult in breeding-plumage. On the upper-parts the plumage is
blackish brown in colour, with a comparatively small number of spots; the head
and sides of the neck being ashy-grey, while the nape is marked by streaks of
black, grey, and white. Young birds, in which the throat-patch is lacking, are
much more fully striped. Although it does not breed at the present day in Great
Britain to the south of Scotland, remains of this diver, discovered in the superficial

HAUNT OF THE BLACK-THROATED DIVER,

deposits of the East Coast, suggest that it was formerly a resident in this part of
England, when the climate was colder.

Feeding almost exclusively on fish, and during the winter being oceanic in
their habits, the divers resort to inland lakes for the purpose of nesting. Unlike
the auks, they are not gregarious, consorting only in pairs, and these generally keep-
ing far apart from one another. Although they are strong on the wing, the back-
ward situation of their legs renders the divers extremely ill adapted for moving
upon land, where they walk with the greatest difficulty and ungainliness. Accord-
ingly, in order to avoid the necessity of making the attempt, the slight nest is
always constructed close to the water’s marge, so that the sitting bird can at any
moment resort to her native element by merely sliding downwards from her sitting-
place. In contrast to their awkwardness on land, is the extreme agility displayed
by the divers both on and beneath the surface of the water. They may, indeed,
be regarded as almost the diving-birds par excellence, the great northern diver
having been stated to remain below the surface for a period of eight minutes,
and all the species will readily take a baited hook while diving. Seldom seen

542 DIVING-BIRDS.

on the wing except during the periods of migration, divers fly in a straight, arrow-
like course, somewhat after the manner of ducks. The notes of all the species are
harsh and grating. Arriving at its breeding-haunts in the Arctic regions, about
the end of May or beginning of June, synchronously with the breaking up of the
ice, the great northern diver forthwith sets about the work of nesting. For choice,
an island is selected, but, failing this, the shelving shore of some lonely lake, or
even of a mountain tarn, is taken for a site. The nest, which is constructed of
grass and sedge, is placed in an exposed position, where the sitting bird may
readily receive warning of approaching danger, upon which it takes at once to the
water. This might at first sight seem fraught with danger to the eggs; but it
appears that the safety of these is generally sufficiently assured by their protective
resemblance to their inanimate surroundings; their colour being dark brown
speckled with blackish. The usual number of eggs in a nest 1s but two; and both
sexes take their share in the work of incubation.

THE GREBES.
Family PODICIPEDID.

Best known by the little dabehick of our English meres and rivers, the family
of the grebes is distinguished from that of the divers by the toes being lobated instead
of webbed, and furnished with broad, flat nails, rounded at the tips; by the presence
of twelve primary quills in the wing; by the rudimentary condition of the tail;
and by the number of vertebree in the neck varying from seventeen to twenty-one.
In all of them a bare stripe extends across the lores from the beak to the eye; the
beak, although very variable in form, is always much elongated; and the nostrils
are never protected by an overhanging lobe. The wings are short and concave,
and when closed have the primaries concealed by the secondaries; while in the
aborted tail a tuft of downy, soft feathers takes the place of the usual stiff rectrices.
On the lower surface of the body, the plumage, which is usually of a pure white
hue, is remarkable for its soft silky texture and brilliant lustre.

The grebes are more addicted to fresh-water than any other members of the
order, some of them being inhabitants of lakes and rivers throughout the year,
while others are oceanic during a large portion of their existence. They are
represented by some sixteen species, ranging over the temperate and subtropical
regions of both hemispheres; five of these being European, and two out of the
latter breeding in the British Islands, while the other three are but winter visitants
thereto. The eggs differ from those of the divers in the creamy white colour of
their shells, and their green tinge when viewed by transmitted light; the usual
number in a clutch being either three or four.

The Typical Using the term Podicipes in a wide sense, it will include the

Grebes. greater number of species of the group, or all those in which the
length of the slender beak varies from 24 to 6 times its basal depth. Among the
larger members of the genus, the western grebe (Podicipes occidentalis) is the sole
representative of a group characterised by the great length of the neck and beak,
and the smooth head, which is devoid of tufts at all seasons of the year, while there

GREBES. 543

is no seasonal difference in the general plumage; this species being exclusively
North American. The great crested grebe (P. cristatus), which is the largest
member of the genus, and attains a length of from 21 to 22 inches, belongs, on the
other hand, to a section in which the neck and beak are shorter, and the head of
the adult is ornamented in the breeding-season at least, with coloured ruffs, tufts,
or patches; while the general plumage in the breeding-season, differs considerably
from that of the adult in winter, and likewise from that of the young. In this
particular species the crest, although largest in summer, is borne throughout the
year; but in others it disappears in winter completely. In its summer plumage,
this bird may be recognised by its chestnut-coloured ear-coverts, and the white
front of the lower neck and breast; while in winter it has the lores and a stripe
over the eye white.
Confined to the Eastern
Hemisphere, this
species is remarkable
for the extent of its
breeding-area, which
includes Britain and
Southern Europe, the
whole of Africa, and
the greater portion of
Southern and Central
Asia, as well as Aust-
ralia and New Zealand.
It is noteworthy that
the Australasian forms,
though completely = =
isolated, present no SSS = ——SS————
differences from the CRESTED GREBE.
others. The smaller

red-necked grebe (P. griseigenu), which only measures 16 inches in length,
takes its names from the chestnut hue of the front of the lower neck in the summer
plumage, in which alone the crests on the head are present. Inhabiting a large
portion of Northern Europe and Asia, this species appears to have a cireumpolar
distribution ; although some writers regard the variety occurring in America and
North-Eastern Asia as a distinct species, under the name of P. holboelli. A third
group of the genus is characterised by the smaller size of its members, in which
the neck is short, and the beak shorter than the head, while ear-tufts are present
in the breeding-plumage. Its best known representative is the cireumpolar
Sclavonian grebe (P. cornutus), which visits the British Islands and Gibraltar in
winter, and, except in Norway, does not breed north of the Arctic Circle. Measur-

ing a little over 13 inches in length, it is characterised by its compressed beak ; and
the combination in the breeding-plumage of a chestnut fore-neck with black ear-
tufts. On the other hand, the black-necked grebe (P. nigricollis) may be recognised
by the prevalence of black on both the fore-neck and the ear-coverts. Ranging
over the greater part of Europe and Asia (except India and Burma), as well as

544 DIVING-BIRDS.

portions of Africa and the whole of Greenland, this species is represented by a variety
in Western North Africa. Lastly, we have the familiar dabchick or little grebe
(P. fluviatilis) of the Old World, and the least grebe (P. dominicus) of tropical
America, together with some southern forms, as the representatives of a fourth group,
characterised by the small size of its members, the very short neck and beak, and
the absence of tufts or crests in the breeding-plumage. By many writers these
species are regarded as constituting a distinct genus—Tachybaptes. The dabchick,
which is the commonest of the British grebes, has a wide range in the Old World;
its breeding-area including the subtropical portions of both the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres south of latitude 42°, as well as elevated regions within the
tropics, while in Western Europe it extends some 20° further north. Not exceed-
ing 94 inches in length, the dabchick in breeding-plumage is characterised by the
chestnut-red of the cheeks and front of the neck, which in the American species
are always ashy grey.

wae With the exception that the dabchick, like its small allies,
generally spends the whole year in the neighbourhood of fresh-waters,
the grebes are very similar in their habits, all of them resorting to rivers and lakes
for the purpose of breeding. Their diving powers are such that, when pursued,
these birds seldom take to wing, but nearly always endeavour to escape by disap-
pearing beneath the water, to reappear in the most unexpected place. Indeed,
although the larger species fly strongly and well, with the neck stretched out and
the wings moving rapidly, the dabchick but rarely takes to flight. The ordinary
alarm-note of the great crested grebe may be expressed by the syllables hek-kek ;
but at the pairing-season a guttural sound is uttered. Their food consists of frogs,
fish, molluses, water-insects, ete., supplemented by the shoots and seeds of aquatic
plants; and several instances are on record where the dabchick has been found
choked through having endeavoured to swallow the common bullhead. The great
crested grebe frequently associates in parties during the breeding-season ; when,
like its congeners, it makes its large nest of decaying water-plants so nearly level
with the surface of the water that it is generally constantly wet. A colony of
these birds on the Zaader Zee, near Danzig, is described by Mr. Seebohm, who
writes, that “they were breeding in an immense reed-bed, and as our boat neared
their nesting-grounds we saw the grebes sailing majestically, not to say indignantly,
out of the side of the reed-bed. As soon as we reached the place I put on my
waders, and was soon in a dense forest of reeds, where it was very easy to lose
one’s way. The water was above my knees, and the reeds were far above my
head. After stopping to take the nest of a great sedge-warbler with four eggs, I
soon found the colony of grebes. There were dozens of nests, but never very close
to each other, and I soon filled my handkerchief with eggs. It was the 5th of
June, and only about half the nests contained the full complement of eggs. The
birds had evidently seen us long before we approached, and had had ample time to
retreat with dignity. In the nests, which contained three or four eggs, these were
warm and covered with damp moss; but in those containing only one or two, they
were uncovered and cold.” Mr. Seebohm was thus led to believe that the eggs are
not covered till the female begins to incubate, and the purpose of covering them 1s
as a protection against chill, and not for concealment; white eggs being quite in-

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PNR ONO eT TT

PENGUINS. 545

conspicuous in the recesses of a dense mass of reeds. The larger grebes are much
hunted for the sake of the beautiful silky plumage of the breast; and on the Lake
of Geneva it is customary in autumn to make up boating-parties, for the purpose
of shooting the great crested species.
The Thick-Billed The thick-billed, pied-billed, or Carolina grebe (Podilymbus
Grebe. podiceps), which is an exclusively American form, clearly represents
a distinct genus, characterised by the shortness and stoutness of the beak, in
which the length is less than twice the basal depth. The much arched beak is
parti-coloured; the length of the metatarsus is less than that of the third toe
without the claw; and the head is not tufted, although the throat is ornamented
with a black patch. This grebe inhabits temperate North America and the West
Indies, as well as the whole of Central and the greater part of South America.

THE PENGUINS.
Order IMPENNES.

Approximating to the diving- birds (to which they also present certain
resemblances in the structure of their soft internal parts) in the backward position
of their short legs and their upright posture when on land, the penguins of the
Southern Hemisphere differ from all other members of the class in two important
structural features. In the first place, the wings, in which
the quills are rudimentary, are transformed into paddles ; and,
in the second, the short metatarsus is of great width, with
its three longitudinal elements incompletely fused together,
and separated from one another by small foramina. Conse-
quently, these birds can scarcely be said to have a true cannon-
bone. As regards their skulls, the penguins agree with the
other birds treated in this chapter in having the palate of the
cleft (schizognathous) type ; and there are also hollows on the
forehead for the reception of glands. The feathers are pro-

. . . < RIGHT METATARSAL BONE
vided with after-shafts, and the spinal feather-tract is not OF SHE SEKOWS
defined on the neck, while the oil-gland is tufted. The young, CROWNED PENGUIN.
although born covered with down, are at first helpless, and
require to be tended for a long period in the nest. In addition to the rudimentary
condition of the wing-quills, there are also no functional tail-feathers; and it is
very noteworthy that the rudimental scale-like feathers with which the wings are
covered are more numerous than the quills and wing-coverts of any other birds.
As additional characters of the skeleton, it may be mentioned that the blade-bone
or scapula is remarkable for its great breadth, while the bones of the wings
are flattened; the humerus, which has no process on the outer side of its lower
extremity, being very short. In habits the penguins are marine and carnivorous.

The general appearance of these birds is so well-known that it will be
unnecessary to say much on this point. We may mention, however, that the beak
is more or less elongated and straight, with its sides compressed and grooved, and
its tip sharply pointed; the slit-like nostrils being situated within the lateral

VOL. IV.—35

546 PENGUINS.

grooves. The three front toes are of moderate length and completely webbed ;
while the first toe is very small, and united to the sides of the metatarsus.
Although it is possible that the penguins may have some affinity to the diving-
birds, the structure of the metatarsus seems undoubtedly to point to their being an
extremely primitive type, since it is difficult to believe that a metatarsus of this kind
could have been evolved from the cannon-bone of an ordinary bird by a kind of
retrograde evolution. This view is supported by the large number of the rudi-
mental wing-feathers, to which allusion has been already made; and likewise by
the circumstance that remains of a very large penguin having been obtained in
New Zealand from strata of Eocene age, thus showing the extreme antiquity of
the group. It may be added that some writers regard the penguins as constituting
a group entirely apart from all the birds hitherto treated, and ranking on an
equality with the ostrich-like birds described in a later chapter.

As already mentioned the penguins are confined to the Southern Hemisphere,
where they range from the tropic to about the 80th parallel of south latitude.
They are found not only on the Antarctic ice, but in South Africa, South
America, Australia, and New Zealand, as well as many of the smaller islands
of the southern oceans, more especially the Falklands, Kerguelen, and Tristan
da Cunha. Although the whole of the penguins—some twenty in number—
are included in the single family Spheniscidw, they are now generally
divided into five genera, of which the leading characters may be briefly
noticed. The largest members of the whole group are the king-penguin (A pteno-
dytes pennant), of Marion Island, Kerguelen Land, and other districts in the
southern ocean, and the still larger emperor-penguin (A. forsterz), of the Antarctic
seas. In addition to their large size, these species, as Shown in our coloured Plate,
are characterised by the great length and slenderness of the beak, which is slightly
arched, and the absence of any crest on the head. In the former the colour of the
head, neck, and throat is brownish black; the region behind the ear having a pear-
shaped patch of yellow, continued as a streak down the sides of the neck, and
meeting on the upper breast; while the whole of the upper-parts are iron-grey,
and the under surface glistening white, faintly tinged with yellow. In the
emperor-penguin the yellow area is limited to a small patch behind the eye.
Specimens of this species brought to England by Ross, stand, as mounted, just
under 34 feet in height; while the largest example captured by him weighed 78
Ibs. Closely allied to these is the gentle penguin (Pygoscelis teniata), of Kerguelen
Land and the Falklands—a species inferior in size only to the king-penguin, and
commonly known as the “Johnny.” Devoid of a crest, this penguin is dis-
tinguished from the preceding by the long and pointed red beak being stouter and
more feathered. In colour the plumage of the back is dark blackish and
that of the under-parts white; the dark of the back being continued on to the
head, the summit of which is marked by a conspicuous white patch.

The crested penguins, as represented by the “rock-hopper” (Hudyptes chryso-
coma), of the Falkland Islands, the yellow-crested penguin (2. pachyrhynchus), of
New Zealand and the Antarctic, and several others, belong to a third genus,
characterised by the smaller size of its members, the short, deep, and compressed
beak, in which the upper jaw has a distinctive oval form, and the presence of a

PENGUINS. 547

pair of yellow crests on the sides of the head, which are continued forwards as
streaks above the eyes to the neighbourhood of the base of the beak. In the rock-
hopper these crests are much elongated, attaining a length of from 3 to 5 inches,
while in the New Zealand species they are much shorter, never exceeding a couple
of inches in length. The total length attained by the latter species is 27 inches.
Nearly allied is the little blue penguin (Hudyptula minor), of Southern Australia

aan
» Te Ne
i Minar? i i
il

I Wy
i i Bird Hea, bin

i
il

ROCK-HOPPER PENGUINS (} nat. size).

and New Zealand, which does not measure more than 19 inches in length, and has
no yellow streaks or crests on the head; the general colour of the plumage of the
upper-parts being light blue, with a median black line down each feather, while
the under-parts are dazzling white. Fossil remains of both these genera occur in
the superficial deposits of New Zealand. The remaining penguins are included in
the genus Spheniscus, of which the black-footed penguin (S. demersus), of South
Africa, Humboldt’s penguin (S. hwmboldti), of Western South America, and the
jackass penguin (S. magellanicus), of the Falkland Islands are well-known examples.

548 PENGUINS.

In these the beak is straight and moderately short, but very wide and deep, with
the tip of the upper mandible slightly hooked, and that of the lower truncate.
There are no crests; and the metatarsus is relatively long. In the adult of the
black-footed penguin the general colour of the plumage is bluish grey above, and

GROUP OF BLACK-FOOTED PENGUINS,

white below; a band the colour of the back extending (as in Humboldt’s penguin)
from the front of each thigh up the sides to form an arch on the front of the neck,
while the white of the throat is continued upwards on the sides of the neck to
form a line through the eye. The total length is about 26 inches. In young birds
a broad blackish band occupies the whole of the front of the lower part of the
throat, and joins directly with the dark area of the back, while there is no white

PENGUINS. 549

line through the eye. Humboldt’s penguin has the white line running just above
the eye, and no white area below the same.

Penguins, writes a recent observer, are the strangest creatures
ever seen; presenting a most curious appearance, both when strutting
about with their padded feet over the snow, or when gliding on their breasts down
a slope, toboggan-fashion. When a visitor lands upon the Antarctic ice, the
emperor-penguins approach
him fearlessly with their
duck-like ery; a proceed-
ing which too often leads
to their destruction. Their
tenacity of life is, however,
marvellous, exceeding even
that of the proverbial cat ;
the writer just quoted
stating that he has known
an emperor-penguin to live
after its skull has been
hopelessly smashed in. All
the species are gregarious,
frequently assembling in
tens of thousands; and
when on the land during

Habits.

the breeding-season are in
the habit of ranging them-
selves in long lines on the
ledges of the rocks or ice,
thus simulating the appear-
ance of soldiers, when seen
from a distance. Although
the king-penguins in our
coloured Plate are repre-
sented with the beaks a

HUMBOLDTS PENGUIN.
extended horizontally , this (From Bartlett, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1879.)
position, according to
Moseley, is incorrect, the birds really standing with the head and neck stretched
vertically upwards, The food of penguins consists exclusively of fish, which the
birds capture beneath the surface by their agility in swimming and diving, when
the paddle-like wings are used as the chief instruments of progression. So
thoroughly, indeed, are they at home in the water, that they are apt to be taken
for dolphins rather than birds, as is testified by Moseley, who writes that on first
approaching the shore of Kerguelen Land he was astonished at seeing what
appeared to be a shoal of small porpoises or dolphins. “T could not imagine,”
he continues, “what the things could be, unless they were indeed some marvel-
lously small cetaceans; they showed black above and white beneath, and came
along in a shoal of fifty or more, from seawards towards the shore at a rapid

556 PENGUINS.

pace, by a series of successive leaps out of the water, and splashes into it again,
describing short curves in the air, taking headers out of the water and headers
into it again; splash, splash, went this marvellous shoal of animals, till they
went splash through the surf on to the black stony beach, and there struggled
and jumped up amongst the boulders and revealed themselves as wet and dripping
penguins, for such they were.” On landing, the penguins always make for cer-
tain well-defined tracts leading up to the “rookeries,” as their places of assembly
are called, and where they not unfrequently collect in thousands; these main
tracts branching out into a number of diverging paths when they reach the
rookery. The nest of the rock-hopper is merely a shallow depression in the black
soil, which may or may not be lined with a few stalks of dry grass. In this are
deposited two greenish white eggs, about the size of those of a duck, in the incuba-
tion of which both male and female birds take their share. The black-footed
species, according to Layard, deposits, however, but a single white egg, which rests
on the bare ground. On the other hand, the jackass-penguin is in the habit of
nesting in burrows, which inmay be as much as twenty feet in depth; and the same
is also not unfrequently the case with the little blue penguin of New Zealand,
although the two eggs of this species are sometimes laid in the crevices of rocks.
The breeding-time of this species on the islands off the Cape lasts through August,
September, and October.

The penguins inhabiting Tristan da Cunha migrate about April, and return in
July or August; but where they go seems not to be ascertained, although it is
quite certain that they cannot remain at sea for such a protracted period. Although
during their aquatic journey they do not travel with anything like the speed of
birds on the wing, they have, as Moseley remarks, the compensating advantage of
a constant supply of food. Writing of the habits of the little blue penguin, Gould
observes that “its powers of progression in the deep are truly astonishing; its
swimming powers are in fact so great that it stems the waves of the most turbulent
seas with the utmost facility, and during the severest gale descends to the bottom,
where, among beautiful beds of coral and forests of seaweed, it paddles about in
search of crustaceans, small fish, and marine vegetables, all of which kinds of food
were found in the stomachs of those I dissected.” Of the Jackass-penguin, Darwin
says that when crawling, it may be said, on four legs, through the tussocks or on
the side of a grassy cliff, it moves so very quickly that it might easily be taken
for a quadruped. When at sea and fishing, it comes to the surface for the purpose
of breathing with such velocity, and dives again so instantaneously, that I defy
any one at first sight to be sure that it is not a fish leaping for sport. This species,
by the way, derives its popular name from its habit, when on shore, of throwing
back its head and giving vent to a ery not unlike a donkey’s bray.

Cai TD) ks XX

THe Tinamus, FLIGHTLEss Birps, Ere.
Groups CRYPTURL, STEREORNITHES, RatTira#, ODONTORNITHES, AND SAURURZ.

SouTH AMERICA is the exclusive home of a group of birds which,
while resembling the game-birds to a great extent in outward
appearance and habits, present a peculiarity in the structure of the bony palate of
the skull by which they are distinguished from all the birds hitherto described,
and thus approximate to the ostriches. These birds are the tinamus, constituting
the order Crypturz and the family Tinamide, and are represented by thirty-nine
species arranged under nine genera. That the tinamus are allied on the one hand
to the game-birds, and on the other to the ostrich-like birds, seems most probable ;
and it is not unlikely that the type of palatal structure they display is the primitive
one from which the others have originated.

Partridge, or quail-like, in general appearance, the tinamus have small heads,
with short, slender, curved beaks; strong, naked legs and feet, in which the first
toe is either small or represented merely by its claw; and short, rudimentary tails,
which are frequently concealed by the coverts; the wings being also short and
rounded. They are specially characterised by the circumstance that while the

Tinamus.

narrow breast-bone has a well-developed keel, like that of the game-birds, in the
palate of the skull, which is of the cleft or schizognathous type, the vomer, or
median element, is fused with the bones immediately in front and behind it, namely,
with the maxillo-palatines in front and with the palatines and pterygoids behind,
in which respect they approximate to the ostriches. A further resemblance to
that group is afforded by the circumstance that the last few vertebree of the tail
do not coalesce to form a ploughshare-shaped bone. In the skull the apertures of
the nostrils resemble those of the game-birds in their oval (holorhinal) shape;
while on its under surface the sphenoidal rostrum bears well-developed basiptery-
goid processes. In the plumage the feathered tracts, both on the neck and else-
where, are well distinguished from the bare intervening areas ; the after-shafts of the
feathers are rudimentary ; there are ten primary quills in the wings; and the oil-
gland is tufted. The young are active almost immediately after hatching, and are
remarkable for the rapidity with which they acquire their full plumage; being, in
fact, able to fly more rapidly than the adults. The general colour of the plumage
is deep yellowish, marked above with bars of dark brown and black. The eggs of
all the species are remarkable for their highly polished surface, which resembles a
piece of glazed porcelain, the colour being either wine-red or bluish green. As
regards food, the tinamus are vegetable-feeders. Since all the members of the
family are very similar in general structure, it will be unnecessary to point out the

552 TINAMUS.

distinctive characters of the various genera; although it may be mentioned that
the family may be divided into two sections, according to the presence or absence of
a distinct first toe. Of the seven genera with a well-developed first toe, the robust
tinamu (Tinamus robustus) and the solitary tinamu (7. solitarius), of Brazil, are
representatives of the typical genus. The banded tinamu (Crypturus noctivagus),
of Brazil, is a well-known member of the largest genus of the family which contains
some sixteen species; while the martineta, or great tinamu (hynchotus rufescens),
of Brazil and Argentina, is one of two congeneric species, which may be compared in
size to a pheasant. Its eggs are of a wine-red colour. On the other hand, the spotted
tinamu (Nothura maculata), and the allied Darwin’s tinamu (NV. darwinz), both-of

GREAT TINAMU, OR MARTINETA (1 nat. size).

which are inhabitants of the Argentine pampas, are more nearly the dimensions of
a small partridge; their eggs being either purple-red or liver-colour. The two
genera in which the first toe is rudimentary are each represented by a single
species, of which by far the handsomest is the crested tinamu (Calodromas
elegans), of Patagonia, in which both the upper and lower plumage is elegantly
mottled, and the head adorned with an upright crest. This species, which is of
the size of an English pheasant, lays from ten to a dozen blue-green eggs as large
as those of a fowl. Pentland’s tinamu (Tinamotis pentlandt), the representative
of the second three-toed genus, lacks the upright crest.

To ordinary observers, the tinamus, both as regards general

Habits. : : . :
appearance and habits, would be considered as game-birds, of which,

STEREORNITHES. S58)

indeed, they take the place in South America, where they are commonly termed
partridges. Endowed with far less powers of flight than ordinary game-birds, the
various species of tinamus frequent either the open grassy pampas, or seek the
shelter of woods. The species inhabiting the Argentine pampas, as the author can
testify from personal experience, are in the habit of skulking like rails among the
luxuriant grass, among which they run from under the very feet of the horses.
They can be flushed only with difficulty, although when they do rise their flight
is exceeding noisy and violent, and soon leads to the birds exhausting themselves.
Writing of the spotted tinamu, Mr. E. W. White states, in Misiones these birds
partake of the colour of the soil, which “is of a ferruginous clay, and differ herein
completely from those of Buenos
Ayres. They are so completely
tame and abundant on the fine
undulating grass-lands that
extend hence southwards, that
in the early morning they come
right up to the houses, and the
boys knock them over with
stones.” On account of their
confiding disposition, coupled
with their general stupidity, and
the excellence of their flesh,
these birds have been well-nigh
exterminated in many districts
where they were formerly
abundant ; large numbers being
taken by riding in a circle and PENTLAND’S TINAMU,

capturing them with a noose.

Generally solitary, many live in close proximity, making their whereabouts known
to one another by their soft plaintive cries. Of all the birds of the pampas, the
great tinamu, according to Mr. Hudson, “is perhaps the sweetest-voiced, and sings
with great frequency. Its song or call is heard oftenest towards the evening, and
composed of five modulated notes, flute-like in character, very expressive, and is
uttered by many individuals answering each other as they sit far apart concealed
in the grass.” The crested species, which is also a regular singer, seems to associate
in coveys; and, like the game-birds, is in the habit of dusting its plumage in the
sandy soil. The young, whose precocity in regard to the development of feathers
has been already mentioned, leave their parents at a very early age to shift for
themselves. The nests are built in a hollow on the ground, beneath the shelter of
a tussock of grass or low bush, and scantily lined with herbage and feathers.

EXTINCT PATAGONIAN FLIGHTLESS BIRDS.
Group STEREORNITHES.

Although their intercalation between the tinamus and the ostrich-like birds
somewhat interferes with a proper sense of the connection of those two groups, it

554 STEREORNITHES.

is necessary to mention here an assemblage of giant flightless birds, which were
abundant during the Miocene Tertiary in Patagonia and parts of Argentina.
These Stereornithes, as they are called, certainly cannot be included among the
modern flightless group of giant birds, and it is uncertain whether they can claim
a place with the preceding orders in the great subclass of Carinate ; so that they
must, accordingly, be allowed to constitute a group by themselves, of which the
exact serial position cannot yet be fixed. Attaining gigantic dimensions (the tibia
of one species being upwards of 30 inches in length), these Patagonian birds are
especially characterised by the great relative size and remarkable form of their
skulls. In one species, for instance, the lower jaw measures 21 inches in length,
and is of extraordinary massiveness; while in another, although shorter, this
massiveness is still more exaggerated. ‘The skull is characterised by the great depth
and compression of the upper mandible of the beak, which terminates in a descending

SIDE VIEW OF SKULL OF GIANT FLIGHTLESS PATAGONIAN BIRD (Phororhachis)
(about 2 nat. size). (From Ameghino.)

hook, towards which the extremity of the lower mandible gently ascends. The nasal
apertures (V) are pierced very high up on the sides of the skull, and have no partition
between them, and the lower mandible is truncated posteriorly, and has its two
branches united by a very long symphysis. A feature in which these birds differ from
the ostrich group is to be found in the circumstance that the quadrate-bone (()
articulates with the rest of the skull by two heads at its upper extremity, as in
ordinary flying-birds. In the leg-bones the tibia has a bony bridge at its lower
end for the protection of the extensor tendons, and the first toe was generally
present. Although well-developed wings were retained, these were useless for
flight; but the metacoracoid was of the elongated form characteristic of flying-
birds, and thus markedly different from the corresponding bone of the ostrich
group. The leg-bones of these birds indicate two well-marked generic types, in
one of which the legs were long and slender, while in the other they were more
massive and relatively shorter ; the former type being known as Phororhachis and
the latter as Brontornis. Corresponding differences obtain in the form and pro-
portions of the beak. Whatever be the exact serial position of these marvellous
birds (all of which may be included in the single family Phororhachide), it is

FLIGHILESS. BIEDS. 555

evident they were derived from flying-birds quite independently of the modern
flightless birds.

Eocene Flightless As they may possibly have some connection with the Stereor-
Birds. nithes, although it is almost as probable they may form a group by

themselves, it may be convenient to mention here certain giant extinct birds from
the Lower Eocene of France, England, and the United States, which constitute the
family Gastornithide. All have a bony bridge at the lower end of the tibia,
while in the European Gastornis the component bones of the skull remained
separate throughout life, and it is possible that there may have been a large tooth
on each side of the upper jaw, while the symphysis of the lower mandible was
short. In North America the group is represented by Diatryma.

THE FLIGHTLESS OR OSTRICH-LIKE BIRDS.
Supcuass Ratitee.

With the exception of certain specially modified species like the dodo, in
which the power of flight has been lost, the existing birds hitherto treated are
characterised by the circumstance that the breast-bone is provided with a strong
vertical median keel, to afford support for the muscles necessary for flight, while
both the scapula and metacoracoid are separate elongated bones, forming an acute
or right angle at their junction. On account of this general presence of a keel to
the breast-bone, the foregoing orders are brigaded together into a single assemblage
or subclass, known as the Carinate, which may be anglicised into Carinates. Asa
rule, the Carinates possess to a greater or less degree the power of flight; and
they are further generally characterised by the circumstance that in the pelvis the
bones known as the ilium and ischium are united at their outer extremities so as
to enclose a foramen’; while the head of the quadrate bone, by which the lower
jaw articulates with the skull, is double; and in the palate the vomer (except in
the tinamus) is not fused with the neighbouring bones, or interposed between them
and the rostrum of the sphenoid. On the other hand, in the birds now to be con-
sidered the breast-bone is invariably devoid of a keel, while the metacoracoid is short
and united with the scapula, and the two bones form a very obtuse angle at their
junction”; moreover, the furcula is incomplete, so that its two branches remain quite
separate. All these birds further agree in having their wings greatly reduced, so as
to be utterly useless for flight. They are also characterised by the extremities of the
ilium and ischium (except in very old individuals of the rheas and emeus) remaining
distinct 3; and likewise by the single head of the quadrate bone, as they are by the
vomer, which is broad behind, being interposed between the other bones of the palate
and the rostrum of the sphenoid, and also frequently fused with some of them.
Other features of the group are the absence of an oil-gland, and of any marked
distinction between feathered and unfeathered areas on the skin; while the hook-

1 This circular foramen or vacuity is shown in the pelvis of the skeleton of the parrot figured on p. 292 of
Vol. IIT.

* This arrangement is shown in the figure on p. 294 of Vol. III., which is taken, by the way, from an aberrant
Carinate,

3 See figure in Vol. III. p. 290.

556 FLIGHTLESS BIRDS.

like or uncinate processes of the ribs are never more than three in number, and are
often rudimental, or even absent. In addition to the agreement in the structure
of the skull, they resemble the tinamus in that the terminal vertebre of the tail
are not united to form a ploughshare-like bone.

On account of the invariable absence of a keel to the
breast-bone, this group of birds, which includes the ostrich
and its allies, are collectively designated the Ratitew or
Ratites—so named from the Latin term for a flat-bottomed
boat. This group is reckoned as a subclass of equal rank
with the Carinate ; and by many ornithologists is subdivided
KEEL-LESS BREAST-BoNE or ito orders, although we shall content ourselves by arranging

A RATITE BIRD, its various members in families. The existing members of

the group, which are comparatively few in number and have
a remarkably scattered distribution on the surface of the globe, are widely different
from one another in structure, and include the largest of all birds, while none
of them are very small. Very different views have been entertained as to the
relationship of these Ratite birds to the Carinates; it having at one time been
supposed that the former might represent the ancestral stock from which the latter
was derived. There is, however, now a pretty general consensus of opinion that
the Ratites are derived from flying, and consequently Carinate birds, and that
the tinamus are their nearest living allies.

THE OSTRICHES.
Family STRUTHIONIDA.

The ostriches are the largest of all existing Ratites, and therefore of all living
birds, and they are at the same time the most specialised representatives of the sub-
class; this specialisation showing itself in the reduction of the number of toes to two,
owing to the absence not only of the first or hind-toe, but likewise of the second.
In this respect ostriches are perfectly unique among birds. While they agree with
the majority of their allies in their short beak, ostriches are further characterised by
the short stunted nails on the toes, the great proportionate length of the humerus
of the rudimental wing, and the absence of after-shafts to the feathers. In the
skeleton the furcula is wanting, the pubic bones of the pelvis unite in a symphysis
(as they do in many reptiles but in no other birds), and the lower end of the tibia
has no bony bridge over the extensor tendons; while there are also certain
characteristic features in the base of the skull, into the consideration of which it
will be unnecessary to enter. In addition to their large size and two toes,
ostriches are characterised externally by the small and flattened head, in which
the short beak is broad and depressed; the long, powerful, and practically naked
neck ; the full and massive body, provided with short wings; the muscular and
partly bare thighs; and the stout metatarsus and foot. The beak has a very wide
gape, reaching back to the line of the eyes; and the nostrils open near the middle
of its length. The third toe is much larger than the fourth, and both are
furnished with soft fleshy pads on the under surface. In the immature state the

B ee

OSTERAGHEIES: 557

skin is covered with coarse plumage of a mottled dark brown and yellowish white
hue, the neck being completely bare. In the adult female the colour changes to
a nearly uniform dusky grey; but in the male, while the body-feathers are black,
the tail-feathers and quills of the wing are pure glistening white; the neck in
both sexes being clothed with short down. A peculiarity of the feathers of the
wings and tail is that their two webs are of equal width. The young, like
those of all the other members of the group, are active as soon as hatched; and
the eggs are polished and pale yellowish white in colour; those from North

OSTRICHES FEEDING.

Africa being traversed by a number of minute punctures, while those from the
Cape are smoother. Finally, the male is far superior in size to his partner.

There is still some uncertainty whether there is more than a single species
of ostrich, although it is well known that the kind inhabiting Somaliland and East
Africa differs from the more ordinary type, which is now confined to Africa,
Arabia, Syria, and Mesopotamia. In the latter (Struthio camelus) the colour of
the naked skin of the neck and thighs is reddish; whereas in the Somali ostrich
(S. molybdophanes) it is bluish, and there is a conspicuous red patch on the front
of the metatarsus. It is, however, probable that these slight variations indicate
local races rather than distinct species. In regard to the dimensions attained by
ostriches, it may be mentioned that an unusually fine male from the Niger basin,

558 FLIGHTLESS BIRDS.

measured 4 feet 10 inches in height at the back, and had a total length of 4 feet
3 inches. Ordinary examples of the same sex reach only about 3 feet 8 inches

in height.
Distribution and Although now confined to Africa, Syria, Arabia, and Mesopotamia,
Habits. —and becoming every year scarcer in the three last - mentioned

countries,—there is a probability that ostriches formerly existed within the historic
period, in parts of Central Asia and possibly in Baluchistan, since there are several
allusions to birds which can scarcely be anything else than ostriches in various
ancient writings. Quite apart, however, from this, the evidence of its fossilised
remains shows that an extinct species of ostrich, nearly allied to the existing kind,
inhabited North-Western India during the Phocene period; and a petrified egg
from the province of Cherson in Russia, points to the former existence of these
birds in that country. Originally it is probable that the ostrich ranged in suitable
localities from Senegambia in the west, through Southern Morocco, Algeria, and
Egypt, to Arabia, Syria, and Mesopotamia in the east; while in the other direction
it extended from Algeria through Central and Eastern Africa. Being, however,
essentially a bird of open, sandy districts, there are many regions in Africa, such as
the neighbourhood of Zanzibar and large tracts on the west coast and in the Congo
Valley, where, owing to the prevalence of forest, the ostrich never existed. More-
over, the constant persecution with which these birds have been harassed for years,
on account of their beautiful plumes, has led to their almost complete disappearance
from Egypt and Nubia, and they are now seldom found to the north of latitude 17°,
The ostrich has also disappeared from large tracts in South Africa, although still to
be met with in small parties in the great Kalahari Desert, and especially in the
part lying to the southward of Lake Ngami. It is likewise still fairly common on
the borders of Namaqualand and Damaraland, the great Mabebi flats, and certain
parts of Matabililand and Mashonaland, where it is sometimes seen in large flocks.
Always inhabiting more or less desert-like districts, or flats covered with
stunted patches of bush, where the elevated position of their head gives them a
wide field of vision, ostriches in South Africa generally associate in parties of from
ten to twenty individuals, although in the northern parts of the continent the
flocks are stated to be smaller. In Southern Africa they frequently associate with
herds of wildebeest and hartebeest ; and their keen sight and wary nature, coupled
with their unrivalled speed, render them almost the most difficult of all animals to
capture. Outstripping the swiftest African antelopes in speed, the ostrich, in cool
weather, could indeed easily escape from any horseman, were it not for its foolish
habit of running in a circle, and thus allowing shots to be easily obtained. In
running at speed the ostrich spreads its wings, and the distances it can traverse
are enormous; indeed, during the daytime it is continually on the move. In
the neighbourhood of the sea or lakes ostriches are reported to be in the habit
of bathing during the hot season, when parties have been seen standing up to their
necks in water; and salt of some kind seems absolutely essential to their existence.
The digestion of an ostrich is proverbial; and while in their general diet these
birds are practically omnivorous, they are likewise in the habit of swallowing
stones, sand, bones, or even pieces of metal, to aid in the trituration of their food.
In captivity this habit probably becomes abnormally developed; and there are

OSTRICBES. 559

instances where even the constitution of an ostrich could not resist the effects of
some of the substances swallowed. Among the ordinary food of the ostrich are
comprised small mammals and birds, snakes, lizards, and insects, as well as grass,
leaves, fruits, berries, and seeds. Although they can go for protracted periods
without it, and will not wander far out of their way to procure it, yet when water
is at hand, ostriches will drink constantly. Young ostriches are said to be silent,
but the old cocks utter a loud ery, which is likened by Livingstone to the roar of
the lion, and by Canon Tristram to the lowing of oxen; this cry being generally
uttered in the early morning. The ostrich’s chief mode of attack or defence is by
kicking with its immensely powerful legs, although, in the fights in which the
cocks periodically indulge, the birds also peck at one another with their beaks.
Much interest attaches to the breeding-habits of the ostrich, although from
many of the accounts having been derived from native sources, very erroneous
notions are prevalent on this subject. At the pairing-season, which takes place
early in the spring, each cock, after having gone through various performances to
attract their attention, and frequently many contests with his rivals, associates
with three or four hens. All these hens lay in a single nest, which consists solely
of a large hollow excavated in the sand. There is still some uncertainty as to the
number of eggs laid in a nest, although there is little doubt that this has been
much exaggerated. As many as twenty are, however, frequently incubated ; but
in addition to these it appears that a certain number are deposited round the edge
of the nest, which are never intended to be hatched, and are stated to serve as food
for the young. Although it is generally stated that both sexes take equal shares
in the work of incubation, this is incorrect, the cock-bird (as among all the other
members of the subclass) undertaking almost the entire task. He sits, for instance,
throughout the night, when the nest must be protected from prowling jackals; and
in such regions, as the eggs are incubated by day as well as by night, he is only
relieved for short periods during the day in order to procure food. Incubation
during the day takes place, however, only in the cooler districts of the ostrich’s
habitat; in the hotter regions the eggs being left to themselves, with a covering of
sand during the day.
Capture and As already mentioned, advantage is taken of the peculiar habits
Domestication. of the ostrich to surround its flocks by a party of mounted men,
and by this method many are killed in Africa. There are, however, many other ways
of capture. For instance, the bushmen are or were in the habit of dressing them-
selves in the skin of an ostrich, and thus disguised penetrating into the midst of a
flock, when the birds were despatched one after another by means of poisoned
arrows. The hunter must, however, take care to keep to the leeward of his
victims. In Somaliland the natives hunt the ostrich on camels; while in Arabia
and the Sahara it is ridden down on horseback. The bushmen and Somalis also
resort to the aid of pitfalls; while the lasso is employed by the Hadendowa
Arabs of the Sudan, and some other tribes; and in Senaar a curved stick is used in
boomerang-fashion for the same purpose. In Namaqualand the birds are either
surrounded by a cordon of men on foot, who gradually close in upon the flock; or
they are driven by mounted hunters past concealed relays of their companions,
who in turn take up the pursuit till their victims fall through sheer exhaustion.

560 FLIGHTLESS BIRDS.

In addition to the methods noticed, the bushmen have also recourse to the plan of
concealing one of their number in the sand of a nest, after the removal of the eggs,
and by him the birds on their return are shot down with poisoned arrows.

THE RHEAS OR AMERICAN OSTRICHES.
Family RHEIDZ.

In South America the place of the ostriches is taken by an allied group of
birds known as rheas, or, as they are often termed, American ostriches, which are
distinguished externally by the presence of three toes, furnished with claws
instead of nails, and by the fully-feathered head and neck, and the absence of a tail.
The wings also are proportionately longer, and are covered with long, slender
plumes. Agreeing with the ostriches in the absence of after-shafts to the feathers,
in their pale-coloured eggs, and in the superiority in size of the male over the
female, the rheas are further distinguished by certain peculiarities in regard to the
bones at the base of the skull, and likewise by the circumstance that the ischia, or
hinder lower bones of
the pelvis, meet in a
symphysis in the middle
line, instead of the pubes
doing so. The flattened
beak is broad at the base
and rounded at the tip,
where it has a curved
nail-like sheath; and the
extremity of the wing
has a horny process. The
lores and region round
the eye, as well as a ring
round the aperture of the
ear,are devoidof feathers,
the ear aperture being

HEAD OF COMMON RHEA.
(From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1860.) clothed with bristles.

On the head and neck

the feathers are small, thin, and pointed; while those of the body are large,
broad, and rounded, although so soft that no distinct vanes are formed. In
coloration the two sexes are very similar, although the female is generally
somewhat paler than her consort. The best known, and at the same time the most
abundant, of the three species by which the single genus is now represented,
is the common rhea (Rhea americana), inhabiting the pampas of Argentina and
Patagonia. This species is far inferior in size to the ostrich, but it is the
largest of the three. Black on the crown of the head and nape, as well as on
portions of the upper neck and the fore-breast, with yellow and bluish grey on
the sides and other parts of the neck, the general colour of the plumage on the
back, sides of the breast, and wings, is brownish ashy grey in the cock; while the

RHEAS. 561

remainder of the under-parts are dirty white. The iris of the eye is pearl-grey,
the naked portion of the skin flesh-coloured, the beak horn-brown, and the leg
grey. In the female the feathers of the nape and front of the breast are somewhat
lighter in hue. The place of the ordinary species is taken in Eastern Patagonia by
the far less common .,Darwin’s rhea (R. darwinz), distinguished by its smaller size,
relatively shorter legs, which are feathered down to the ankle-joint, as well as by
the more mottled and
less uniformly coloured
plumage, and the pale
green eggs. Lastly, we
have the long - billed
rhea (R. macrorhyncha)
of Northern Brazil,
which is also a small
form characterised by
its longer beak, larger
and more flattened head-
feathers, the longer
feathers of the body,
and the more slender
legs, as well as by the
general - darker colora- HEAD OF Sanenntes RHEA.
tion, which is brownish (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1860.)
grey mingled with black.
Fossil remains of rheas, some of which belong to existing species, are met with in
the caverns of Brazil and the superticial deposits of other districts of South America.
In general habits, rheas, although somewhat more gregarious, are
very similar to ostriches, and as thoroughly adapted for a life on
the South American pampas as are the latter for existence in the South African
veldt and karru. As a rule, each cock rhea associates with from five to seven
hens, which he carefully guards from the attentions of other members of his
kindred ; although after the breeding-season such family-parties collect together
in flocks, which may reach a total of sixty or more head. Possessed of a speed but
little inferior to the ostrich, the rhea is further protected by the exactness with
which the general pale bluish grey hue of its plumage assimilates to the distant

Habits.

haze, thus rendering it invisible even at a moderate distance. Its large form seems,
indeed, as Mr. W. H. Hudson remarks, to melt mysteriously out of sight into the
surrounding blue, so that the hunter strains his eyes in vain to distinguish it.
A truly noble bird when standing among the tall grasses of its native
pampas, the cock rhea summons his scattered consorts by a hollow booming
ery, probably not unlike that of the ostrich, accompanied by a kind of sighing
or hissing sound. When running from their pursuers, both sexes have the
curious habit of raising one wing above the back in a sail-like fashion. In
hot weather these birds will take readily to the water, not only standing in it
with their bodies submerged, but also swimming boldly, though slowly, with
their necks bent slightly forward and scarcely showing any portion of their
VOL. IV.— 36

562 FLIGHTLESS BIRDS.

bodies. In regard to the breeding-habits of the rheas, Darwin writes that “when
we were at Bahia Blanca in the months of September and October, the eggs, in
extraordinary numbers, were found all over the country. They lie either scattered
and single, in which case they are never hatched, and are called by the Spaniards
huachos; or they are collected together into a shallow excavation, which forms the
nest. Out of the four nests which I saw, three contained twenty-two eggs each,
and the fourth twenty-seven. In one day’s hunting on horseback sixty-four eggs
were found; forty-four of these were in two nests, and the remaining twenty
scattered huachos. The Gauchos unanimously affirm, and there is no reason to
doubt their statement, that the male bird alone hatches the eggs, and for some time
afterwards accompanies the young. The cock when on the nest lies very close ;
I have myself almost ridden over one. It is asserted that at such times they are
occasionally fierce, and even dangerous, and that they have been known to attack
a man on horseback, trying to kick and leap on him.” ‘The truth of the statement
that the cock undertakes the whole work of incubation has been demonstrated not
only by observations made upon wild birds, but on captive specimens, which in
England have bred freely. In the common rhea the period of meubation lasts
from thirty to thirty-one days; and while in the south the usual number of eggs
in a nest is from fifteen to twenty, in the north as many as thirty-two have been
observed.

The rhea, like the guanaco, is hunted with the bolas, one method
being for a number of mounted men armed with these implements to
enclose, with the aid of the female portion of the tribe, a considerable tract of
country, and thus slaughter all the game contained within the circle; while the
second, and more sporting plan, is for a single horseman to pursue the bird. In
the latter case a horse of great endurance, and endowed with a fair turn of speed,
is absolutely essential; while it is further requisite that it should have learnt to
follow all the twistings and doublings of the birds. The supreme skill and judg-
ment in casting the bolas at the right moment, and with the requisite strength and
accuracy of aim, necessary to ensure bringing the game to bay, can in general be
acquired only by those who have been accustomed to the use of the weapon from
their childhood. The rheas have been hunted with the bolas for about two
centuries, during which period they have learnt to start off at speed on catch-
ing sight of a mounted man; but till some five-and-twenty years ago, up to which
date they were never shot, they displayed supreme disregard for a person on foot.

Hunting.

THE CASSOWARIES AND EMEUS.
Family CASUARIIDZ.

Two important features serve at once to distinguish the cassowaries and their
near allies the emeus from the ostriches and rheas; the first of these being that the
feathers have after-shafts of such large size as to make them practically double ;
while the second peculiarity is to be found in the eggs, which, instead of being
light-coloured and smooth, are dark green in colour and granulated in texture.
From the observations of Mr. W. Bennett on domestic emeus, it further appears

CASSOWARTIES. 563

that in this group the females are larger than the males. Then, again, the wing is
extremely rudimentary, so much so, indeed, that it may be invisible externally ;
the humerus being very short. In addition to certain peculiarities connected with
the structure of the bones of the palate, the skeleton is further distinguished by
retention of rudiments of the furcula. In the presence of three toes to each foot,
both emeus and cassowaries resemble rheas. By many ornithologists the two
genera under consideration are regarded as the representatives of as many distinct
families, although in our opinion the amount of difference between them is suffi-
ciently expressed by referring them to two subfamilies of a single family.

The cassowaries form an extensive genus containing at least nine
well-defined species, and confined to Australia, New Guinea, Ceram,
and some of the neighbouring islands. They are specially characterised by the
bare head being surmounted by a helmet-like prominence, formed by an upward
extension of the bones of the skull, and covered with naked skin, by the bare neck,
which may or may not be ornamented with pendent wattles, and likewise by the
great length of the claw of the second or inner toe. The body is covered with
dark-coloured feathers, of a peculiarly loose and coarse structure, which are glossy,
and appear more like hairs than the plumage of an ordinary bird; while the wing
is represented externally merely by some four or five black quills devoid of barbs,
which thus presents the appearance of very coarse bristles. Although the whole
of the nine species of cassowaries are included by ornithologists in a single genus,
this may be subdivided into three minor groups, distinguished by the form of the
helmet, and the number of the wattles on the neck, or their absence. In the first
group, as typically represented by the Ceram cassowary (Casuarius galeatus),
which appears to be confined to the island from which it takes its name, and was
the first of these extraordinary birds made known to science, the helmet is flattened
from side to side, or compressed, while the wattles on the neck are either two or
double, the other representatives of this group are the Australian cassowary (C.
australis), of Northern Australia, of which the skull is represented in the figure
on p. 565; and Beccari’s cassowary (C. beccarii) and the two - wattled
cassowary (C. bicarunculatus) of the Aru Islands. Of the second group, the sole
representative is the single-wattled cassowary (C. wniappendiculatus), from the
island of Salwatti and the adjacent coast of New Guinea, which, while agreeing
with the members of the preceding group in the form of the helmet, differs by
having but one undivided wattle. Lastly, we have the third group characterised
by the circumstance that the helmet is flattened from above, or depressed, while
wattles are absent; this group being exclusively Papuan, and represented by the
Papuan cassowary (C. papuanus) of Northern New Guinea, Westermann’s cassowary
(C. westermanni) from the island of Jobi, the painted cassowary (C. picticollis)
confined to the southern half of New Guinea, and Bennett’s cassowary (C. bennett?)
from New Britain. Fossil remains of an extinct cassowary have been obtained
from the superficial deposits of Australia; and, in its whole distribution, the genus
corresponds very closely with the Australasian pouched mammals, none of its
representatives occurring to the westward of the deep channel separating Celebes
and Lombok from Borneo and Java, and known as Wallace’s line.

In appearance, owing to the brilliant hues of blue, green, and red on the naked

Cassowaries.

564 PLIGATEL SS * BIRDS.

skin of the head and neck, coupled with the glossy sheen of the blue-black plumage,
cassowaries are perhaps the handsomest of all the Katitw. The largest species of
all, and the one in which the horn-coloured helnet attains the greatest development,
is the Australian cassowary, which, when erect, stands considerably over five feet
in height. Among its distinctive features is the fine cobalt-blue tint of the throat
and fore-neck, and the red terminal flaps of the deeply divided wattle; the Ceram

AUSTRALIAN CASSOWARY.,

species having the throat and fore-neck dull purple. Of the species without
wattles, Benneti’s cassowary—the muruk of the natives—has the neck entirely
blue; while in Westermann’s cassowary the fore-part of the neck is blue and the
hinder portion red; the reverse of this characterising the painted-necked species.
Nestlings have the plumage mottled, while at a later stage the colour is tawny.

CASSOWARIES. 565

In being forest-haunting birds, cassowaries differ essentially from
the ostriches and rheas; and appear to be generally shy and but
seldom seen in their native haunts. Unfortunately, however, we are still in want
of good accounts of the habits of these birds in their wild state. Those brought to
Europe (where they will lay freely) are characterised by their extreme tameness
and docility; but this, it is said, is largely due to their being mostly, if not in-
variably, specimens which have been reared from early chickenhood in captivity
by the natives, among whom these birds are treated almost like domestic fowls.
The Australian
speciesisreported
to frequent rocky
wooded districts,
where as many
as seven or eight
may be seen to-
gether, keeping
almost entirely
to the more open
portion of the
scrub, and seldom
venturing — out
into the plains.
From July to
September, at
least, 1t 1s known
to feed chiefly
upon an egg-
shaped blue
berry; and its
entire food is
probably of a
vegetable nature.
Regarding the
muruk, Bennett
was informed that the natives of New Britain capture these birds “when very
young, soon after they are hatched, and rear them by hand, but can rarely or
never capture the adult, from its being so shy and difficult of approach. They
are exceedingly swift of foot, and possessed of great strength in their legs. On
the least alarm they elevate the head, and, on seeing danger, dart among the
thick bushes, thread localities where no human being can follow them, and dis-
appear with ineredible rapidity. The muruk, with its powerful legs and muscular
thighs has an extraordinary power of leaping.” This species utters a kind of
chirping cry, susceptible of modulations according to the oceasion. Unlike the
emeu, which kicks outwards and backwards, cassowaries invariably kick forwards,
at the same time elongating their bodies; in captivity they will not unfrequently
perform a kind of war-dance around any object that attracts their attention,

Habits.

SKULL OF AUSTRALIAN CASSOWARY.
(From Sir W. H. Flower, Proc. Zool, Soc., 1871.)

566 TL GHALE SS. BLS,

accompanied by vigorous kickings and many bendings of the neck. In spite of
their speed, and the rapidity with which they move their limbs, cassowaries do not
run, after the manner of an ostrich, but may be rather said to trot.

As regards their breeding-habits in a wild state very little has been ascertained ;
although it would appear that at this season they associate only in pairs. From
native reports concerning the rare Ceram cassowary, Mr. Wallace wrote that the
female laid from three to five eggs, which were brooded by each sex in turn; but
from observations made on menagerie specimens, it appears that all the work of
hatching devolves upon the cock, the period of incubation being about seven weeks.
Although cassowaries will lay freely, it is but seldom that the eggs are hatched in
captivity. In colour, the latter are dark green, with the surface of the shell beauti-
fully granulated, or shagreened. The young cassowaries, in which the position of
the helmet is indicated by a flat horny plate, are carefully tended and fed by the
cock bird until able to shift for themselves.

Sse a Originally applied indifferently to the members of both the

preceding and the present genus, the name emeu (which is itself a
derivative from the Portuguese word emea, meaning apparently a crane, and then
any large bird) is now by common consent restricted to the latter. Agreeing with
the cassowaries in the features mentioned on p. 562, the emeus—of which the two
species are restricted to Australia and some of the adjacent islands—are distin-
guished by the absence of a helmet, the complete feathering of the head and neck,
and the normal length of the claw of the second toe; the claws of all three toes
being much shorter than in the allied genus. They are further characterised by the
beak being depressed and broad, instead of narrow, compressed, and keeled; as they
are by the absence of the bare black quills in the still more rudimentary wing.
Standing next in point of size among living birds to the ostrich, the common emeu
(Dromeus nove-hollandic) of Eastern Australia, has the general hue of the plumage
light brown, mottled in some parts with grey; the individual feathers being of a
uniform blackish grey, except near the tips, where they are black, with a broad
subterminal band of rufous. This species which, from incessant pursuit, has been
well-nigh exterminated even on the mainland, formerly also existed in Tasmania
and the islands of Bass Straits, where it has completely disappeared. In Western
Australia it is replaced by the spotted emeu (D. irroratus), a bird of more slender
build, having the feathers barred with white and dark grey, and terminating in a
black spot with a rufous margin. While the two sexes of the adult are nearly
similar, the young of the common emeu have the ground-colour of the plumage
greyish white, with two stripes of black down the back, and two others on each
side, both being divided by a narrow median streak of white, these stripes being
continued on to the head, where they break up into spots, while there are also
others on the fore-neck and breast, which terminate on the thighs. Like the
cassowaries, the emeus are represented by an extinct species from the superficial
deposits of Australia.

At one time abundant on the mainland of Australia, in the
neighbourhood of Botany Bay and Port Jackson, where it formed as
characteristic a feature in the landscape as the kangaroos and wallabies, the emeu

Habits.

is now only to be met with in the far interior, where it is yearly becoming scarcer.

EMEUS. 567

Unlike the cassowaries, emeus are inhabitants of the plains and open forest country,
where, although strictly monogamous during the breeding-season, they associate in
small parties. Their food consists of fruits, roots, grass, and other herbage; their
chief feeding-time being the cool of the early morning. Possessed of great keenness
of vision, and swift of foot, emeus rival the kangaroos in speed, and afford an
exciting chase with dogs. Such hunts do not end till the birds are thoroughly
exhausted, when, if seized by the neck, in order to avoid kicks from their powerful

EMEU AND CHICKS (7 nat. size).

legs, they are soon pulled down. As with the other members of the subclass, the
task of incubation falls to the share of the cock, by whom the eggs, which vary in
number from nine to thirteen, are brooded, according to observations made on
specimens by Sir E. G. Loder, for a period of from fifty-four to sixty-four days.
The nest is but a poor affair, consisting merely of a shallow hollow, scooped in the
sandy soil. In colour, the eggs vary from a dark bottle-green to a light bluish
green; their length being just short of 5 inches, and their transverse diameter
3? inches. During the breeding-season, at least, the hen-emeu utters a peculiar,
loud booming sound, which is produced through the intervention of a pouch

568 ILTIGHTLESS (BLRPDS.

communicating with the windpipe, on the front of which it opens by a small
aperture ; this structure being confined to the female sex. From its larger size,
the hen-emeu is very liable to be mistaken for the cock. Writing of the differ-
ence in the habits and appearance of the two sexes, Mr. Bennett observes, of a pair
in his possession, “one is considerably larger than the other, stouter in limb, and
more robust in every feature; it has a slight top-knot, and goes strutting about,
especially in damp weather, with its breast feathers fully out, like a pouter-pigeon,
or rather some huge turkey-cock. It is usually the more courageous and pugilistie.
It makes a deep, hollow, guttural boom, when under any gentle excitement of

LA ¥N\\\
Y/N

Wh WA,

Wy Wy
"Wi MMA ON
VAIN)
EMEU RESTING,

pride or pleasure, especially on damp evenings, or in the still hours of the night,
sounding like a small gong or distant mufHed drum. The other is more agile and
graceful in all its movements, corresponding with its slender frame, more docile
and inquisitive, fleeter of foot, and with no voice beyond a suppressed hiss when
angry, and a sort of grunt when distressed.” The former, although at first regarded
as the cock, turned out to be the female. In their wild state emeus take readily
to the water, and have on more than one occasion been observed swimming a wide
river. Beneath the skin these birds have a thick layer of fat, yielding a pale
amber-coloured oil, free from either taste or smell. Very easily tamed, and in a
domesticated state thriving well in Europe, where it breeds freely, the,emeu is
noticeable for a curious and somewhat mischievous disposition. It will, for instance,
invariably endeavour to inspect every strange object brought into its vicinity,

KIWIS. 569

while if a visitor shows any symptoms of fear when brought into a paddock or
park containing one or more of these birds, and attempts to escape by flight, he
will be certain to be pursued. On one occasion, at Sydney, a man thus hunted by
a tame emeu, was much astonished at having his hat removed by the bird. In
such chases, emeus appear to be actuated more by a spirit of mischief than anything
else ; but when they are brought to bay, and to kicking out with their muscular
legs, they are formidable adversaries. In kicking, the blow is delivered outwards
and backwards.

Allied Extinct It is not a little remarkable that during the Pliocene period there
Birds. existed in Northern India a three-toed Ratite bird apparently closely

allied to the emeus and cassowaries; thus showing that in former times the
group had a wider distribution than at present. This bird was not larger than an
emeu; but during the later portion of the Tertiary epoch Australia possessed some
much larger species, which have been named Dromornis, and apparently indicate
an extinct family, more or less closely allied to the present one.

THE KIwIs.
Family APTERYGIDZ.

As the ostriches are the most specialised of the living members of the subclass,
so the kiwis of New Zealand may be regarded as those of its members which
occupy the most generalised position in the group. The specialisation of the
ostriches is shown, among other features, by the gigantic stature of those birds, by
the reduction in the number of the toes, and in the total absence of any trace of a
bony bridge at the lower end of the tibia. The kiwis, on the other hand, exhibit
their more generalised nature by their comparatively small size,—it being obvious
that if the Ratites are derived from flying-birds, the intermediate forms must have
been small,—by the presence of four complete toes, and by remnants of the bony
bridge at the lower end of the tibia. Whether the long beak of the kiwis is also a
generalised feature may be doubtful. If these birds have any close affinity with
the tinamus, it cannot be thus regarded; but if, as some think, they are allied to
the rails, then it may be looked upon in this light. The kiwis, then, differ from
ail the other living members of the subclass by their small size, the presence of
four toes to the foot, and the long and slender beak. They are further
characterised by the females being much superior in size to the males; and also
by the complete absence of after-shafts to the feathers; while the skeleton lacks
any trace of the fureula. The bones of the wing—especially the humerus—
are very small and slender; and externally the whole wing is completely
concealed by the plumage of the back. In general appearance the entire plumage
is markedly hair-like, the individual feathers being pointed, and composed of
separate filaments towards the end of the shaft, of which the basal half is
downy. In build, the kiwis are very robust, the thighs and legs being very
muscular and strong, while the toes are furnished with strong claws. While in old
birds the scales investing the metatarsus have overlapping edges, and form a
perfectly smooth surface, in the young they are soft, detached, and reticulated.

570 FLIGHTLESS BIRDS.

The general colour of the plumage is mottled grey and brown, the feathers having
in some cases light-coloured shafts, and in others dark cross-bars. In addition to
great individual variations of size, kiwis are remarkable for their very large eggs,
which are of a creamy-white colour, and out of all proportion to the dimensions of
the birds by which they are laid. In having the nostrils placed at the tip of the
beak, the kiwis are unique.

At the present day kiwis are represented by three or four species, of which
the first made known to science was the South Island kiwi (Apteryx australis).
This species is of large size and stout build, with a very long beak; the general
colour of the plumage being lighter, and the individual feathers of a sandier and
more greyish brown tinge than in the next form. In the North Island kiwi
(A. mantelli) the general colour of the plumage of the upper-parts is dark rufous
streaked with blackish brown, while the under-parts are pale greyish brown; the
streaky appearance of the upper surface being caused by each feather having the
middle line pale rufous brown, darker towards the tip, and the long hair-like
tilaments black. The total length of the male, following the curvature of the
back, is about 23 inches, and that of the female 27} inches. Of the other two
species, the little grey kiwi (A. owenz), of the South Island, is characterised by its
small size—the length of the male being only 17} inches,—its moderately long
beak, and more slender legs; the general hue of the plumage of the upper-parts
being light yellowish brown, mottled and obscurely barred with wavy blackish
brown markings, while beneath it is paler, becoming fulvous on the abdomen,
where there are faint brown bars. Some doubt exists as to the right to distinction
of the large grey kiwi (A. haastv), which Mr. H. O. Forbes, who believed that it
occurred only in the South Island, thought might be merely a hybrid between the
South Island kiwi and the little grey kiwi. According, however, to Mr. Rothschild,
it exists also in the North Island, where the two latter do not occur. It is a large
and thick-billed species, of darker coloration than the little grey kiwi, the dark
bars on the plumage being nearly black, and the fulvous markings tinged with
chestnut. Fossilised remains of the existing species occur with those of the moas,
while one is supposed to be extinct, and has been named Pseudapteryx. In habits
the kiwis are purely nocturnal; and, at the time when they were still abundant,
were commonly found in parties of from six to twelve, their shrill nocturnal cries
resounding far and wide throughout the mountainous parts of the country they
frequent. No better account of their general mode of life is extant than one from
the pen of Sir W. J. Buller, who, after mentioning that the kiwi is in some measure
compensated for the absence of wings by its swiftness of foot, proceeds to observe
that “when running it makes wide strides and carries the body in an oblique
position, with the neck stretched to its full extent and inclined forwards. In the
twilight it moves about cautiously and as noiselessly as a rat, to which, indeed, at
this time it bears some outward resemblance. In a quiescent posture, the body
generally assumes a perfectly rotund appearance; and the bird sometimes, but
only rarely, supports itself by resting the point of its bill on the ground. It often
yawns when disturbed in the daytime, gaping its mandibles in a very grotesque
manner. When provoked, it erects the body, and, raising the foot to the breast,
strikes downwards with considerable force and rapidity, thus using its sharp and

KIWTS. Eye

powerful claws as weapons of defence. ... When hunting for its food the bird
makes a continual sniffing sound through the nostrils, which are placed at the
extremity of the upper mandible. Whether it is guided as much by touch as by
smell I cannot safely say; but it appears to me that both senses are called into
action. That the sense of touch is highly developed seems quite certain, because

KIWI FEEDING.

the bird, although it may not be audibly sniffing, will always first touch an object
with the point of its bill, whether in the act of feeding or of surveying the ground ;
and when shut up in a cage or confined in a room, it may be heard, all through the
night, tapping softly at the walls. The sniffing sound is heard only when the kiwi
is in the act of feeding or hunting for food; but I have sometimes observed the
bird touching the ground close to or immediately round a worm which it had

572 FLIGHTLESS BIRDS.

dropped without being able to find it. . . . It is interesting to watch the bird, in a
state of freedom, foraging for worms, which constitute its principal food; it moves
about with a slow action of the body; and the long, flexible beak is driven into
the soft ground, generally home to the very root, and is either immediately with-
drawn with a worm held at the extreme tip of the mandibles, or it is gently moved
to and fro, by an action of the head and neck, the body of the bird being perfectly
steady. It is amusing to watch the extreme care and deliberation with which the
bird draws the worm from its hiding-place, coaxing it out as it were by degrees,
instead of pulling roughly or breaking it.” On getting the worm fairly out of the
ground, the bird throws up its head with a jerk, and swallows its prey whole. The
stomachs of specimens that have been dissected contain pebbles, remains of beetles,
and the kernels of berries. In captivity, kiwis are dull, listless creatures during
the day; lying closely huddled together, and slumbering so soundly that no
noise will arouse them. If stirred up with a stick, or suddenly wakened, they
make a few drowsy movements, and soon relapse into sleep. From observations
made on specimens in captivity, it appears that the female kiwi (unlike the
other members of the subclass) lays but one or two eggs annually, which are
deposited in a hollow in the ground, and incubated by her partner. When there
are two, the eggs, which are placed lengthways side by side, are of such a size as
to protrude from the sides of the narrow body of the sitting bird. During the
breeding-season, the «kiwi is silent. An egg of the North Island kiwi measured a
little over 5 inches in length by 3 in breadth.

EXTINCT FAMILIES.

The fate impending over
the kiwis has long since over-
taken their gigantic extinct cousins the
moas (Dinornithide), which had already
disappeared from New Zealand when those
islands were first colonised from Europe,
although there is good reason to believe
that they lived on till within the last five
hundred or four hundred years, if not to a
considerably later date. These birds, of
which not only the bones, but in some
cases the dried integuments, feathers, and
egeshells, as well as the pebbles they were
in the habit of swallowing, have been
preserved in the superficial deposits of
New Zealand, attained a wonderful develop-

Moas.

ment in those distant islands, where they
were secure from persecution till man
appeared on the scene. Not only did the

larger members of the group far exceed
SKELETON OF SHORT-LEGGED Moa. the ostrich in size, but they were extra-

ordinarily numerous in species, as they were also in individuals; such a
marvellous exuberance of gigantic bird-life being unknown elsewhere on the face
of the globe in such a small area. As regards size, the largest moas could have
been but little short of 12 feet in height, the tibia being considerably over a yard
in length; while the smallest were not larger than a turkey. And in reference to
their numbers, it may be mentioned that there are some twenty species, arranged
in about six genera; and the surface of many parts of the country, as well
as bogs and swamps, hterally swarmed with their bones. Some of the
moas had four toes to the foot, and others
but three, all differed from the kiwis in
having a bony bridge over the groove for
the extensor tendons of the tibia (as shown
in the accompanying figure), and are there-
fore evidently the least specialised members
of the subclass we have yet referred to,
seeing that this bridge is present in the
majority of the Carinate birds, and has
thus been lost in the existing Ratites.
While agreeing in some parts of their organ-
isation with the kiwis, the moas are distin-
guished by the short beaks, and the presence
of after-shafts to the feathers; and in the
larger forms, at any rate, not only was the
wing, but likewise the whole shoulder-girdle
wanting. There is, however, reason to
believe that some of the pigmy moas—which
from their size were evidently the most
generalised members of the group—vretained
some of the bones connected with the wing.
The moas were represented by several very
distinct structural modifications ; the largest

being the long = legged OF true moas RIGHT TIBIA AND METATARSUS OF SHORT-
(Dinornis), characterised by their long and LEGGED MOA (% nat. size).

comparatively slender leg-bones, as shown

on p. 295 of the preceding volume, and also by their large and depressed skulls.
In marked contrast to these were the short-legged or elephant-footed moas
(Pachyornis), in which the limb-bones, as shown in the accompanying figure, were
remarkable for their short and massive form; the metatarsus being most especially
noteworthy in this respect. In these birds the skull was vaulted and the beak
narrow and sharp; but in the somewhat smaller and less stoutly-limbed broad-billed
moas (Emeus) it was broad, blunt, and rounded. The other species, 1n all of which
the beak was sharp and narrow, are of relatively small stature, and include
the smallest representatives of the family, some of which were less than a
yard in height. The eggs of the moas were of a pale green colour, and probably
formed a favourite food of the Maories, by whom these birds were evidently

exterminated.

574 TOOTHED AND LIZARD-TAILED BIRDS.

For a long period the marshes of Madagascar have yielded
the eggshells of enormous extinct birds, in search of which the
natives are accustomed to probe with iron rods; the largest of these eggs having
a longer circumference of upwards of thirty-six inches, and a girth of thirty
inches. For the monster birds that laid these eggs (which, by the way, may well
have given origin to the far-famed roc of Arabian romance) the name of A/pyornis
was proposed; and in the course of time naturalists were rewarded by the dis-
covery of its bones. Some of these recently disinterred indicate a bird of larger
build than the most gigantic moa; the metatarsus being especially remarkable
for its massiveness. Certain of these birds appear to have had: four toes; and
they all differ from the moas in the absence of a bony bridge at the lower end
of the tibia. They form the family 4pyornithide.

#pyornis.

TooTHED AND LizARpD-TAILED Brrps.

There remain for brief consideration certain extinct birds, from
formations of earlier age than the Tertiary, which differ from
the whole of those of the present day either in the possession of teeth in the jaws,
or of these, coupled with the retention of a long lzard-lke tail, and certain other
features in the skeleton indicative of affinity with reptiles.

Of the toothed birds (Odontornithes), as distinct from the lizard-tailed birds
which are likewise provided with teeth, there are two very well - marked
modifications, both of which have been obtained from strata in the United States,
corresponding approximately in age with the Chalk and associated formations of
Europe, and hence frequently spoken of as Cretaceous birds. In their general
organisation these birds approximate so closely to the ordinary Carinate birds of
the present day, that they may well be included in the same subclass, of which
they will constitute a separate series characterised by the possession of teeth,
and likewise by the circumstance that the two halves of the lower jaw remain
completely separate in front, instead of having a solid bony union. Of these
toothed birds the one type is known as Jchthyornis, and comprises somewhat
gull-like birds characterised by having a numerous series of teeth implanted
in distinct sockets, and also by the vertebre or joints of the back-bone articu-
lating with one another by means of cup-like surfaces, whereas in the neck
(and generally also in the back) of all existing birds, such surfaces are saddle-
shaped. Although the osteology of Ichthyornis has many resemblances to that of
the gulls, this being especially shown in the skull, which is regarded by Dr.
Schufelt as coming very close to that of the skimmer, the skeleton differs, among
other points, by the circumstance that there is no projecting process on the outer
side of the lower end of the humerus. Hence, although it is quite within the
bounds of probability that these birds may be ancestral types of the modern gulls,
it is by no means certain that they should be included in the same group.

With Hesperornis we are confronted with a totally different type, in which
the teeth were implanted in an open groove, while the wings were rudimentary,
and the keel of the breast-bone was wanting, although the vertebra resembled
those of existing birds in articulating together by saddle-shaped surfaces. In

Toothed Birds.

LAZAR D-TAILED BIRDS. 575

general organisation Hesperornis approximated indeed very closely to the modern
divers, with which it agrees in the general conformation of the skull and limb-
bones, as well as of the pelvis. Whereas, however, the modern divers, have the
long spike-like kneecap, or patella, united with the tibia, in the extinct bird
these two bones remained distinct. In dimensions, Hesperornis was a bird of
large size, attaining a height of rather more than a yard when in the upright
position. That it was thoroughly aquatic in its habits is self-evident; while it
may with considerable probability be regarded as a specialised and flightless
offshoot from the ancestral stock of the modern divers; although this would
not justify its inclusion in the same family as the latter. An apparently allied,
although very imperfectly known type of bird (Znaliornis) is represented in
England, where its remains have been obtained from a thin stratum lying at the
base of the Chalk, known as the Cambridge greensand.

Lizard-Tailed Descending lower in the geological series, and reaching those
BEL strata lying below the chalk, such as the Portland limestone, and

known as the Jurassic series, we meet in certain Bavarian rocks, corresponding in
age to those of Portland, with remains of birds departing much more widely from
existing types than any hitherto mentioned. These birds, of which but a couple of
imperfect skeletons, with impressions of the wing and tail-feathers, are known, are
named Archwopteryx, and constitute a group—Sauwrure, or lizard-tailed birds—
regarded by some as of equivalent rank to the flying and flightless birds, but by
others as of equal importance with the two together. In size these birds were
about equal to rooks, with which they agree in being evidently adapted for perch-
ing on the boughs of trees. In addition to the possession of a small number of
conical teeth in the short jaws, they are characterised by having a long, lizard-
like, tapering tail (which gives the name to the group), and from each joint of
this a pair of feathers take origin. In this respect they differ from all the birds
hitherto noticed, in the whole of which the bones of the tail are shortened, the tail-
feathers arising in a fan-shaped manner from its terminal joint. In addition to
this, they are further characterised by the first three metacarpal bones of the wing,
as well as those representing the corresponding fingers, being perfectly distinct
from one another, and each terminal joint of the latter being furnished with a
well-developed claw; all other birds having the metacarpal bones, as well as some
of those of the fingers, welded together; while there are, at most, but two claws
(in the young of the seriema). It may be mentioned here that although the three-
clawed digits in the wing of the lizard-tailed birds are commonly regarded as
representing the first, second, and third of the typical five-fingered limb, Mr. C. H.
Hurst believes that they really represent the second, third, and fourth; and he is
thus led to conclude that the same will hold good for the digits in the wing of an
ordinary bird. Be this as it may, in having cup-shaped articular surfaces to the
bodies of the vertebre, the lizard-tailed bird resembles the later Jchthyornis ; but
it differs from all other members of the class in having the three bones constituting
the pelvis perfectly distinct from one another (as in most reptiles), while in the
leg the tibia and fibula are likewise separate. As regards the general structure of
the wing and leg, these remarkable birds agree, however, with their modern allies:
the foot having a complete cannon-bone, and but four toes, of which the first is

576 TOOTHED AND LIZAKD-LATLEED BILD.

directed backwards. In the absence of hook-like (uncinate) processes to the ribs,
Archwopteryx would appear to be more specialised than ordinary birds, seeing that
these elements exist in many reptiles; while in the possession of a perfectly
formed cannon-bone, it would appear to be on a higher level than the penguins.

Finally, it will not fail to be noticed that although some of these toothed birds
exhibit certain specialised features suggesting that they are not the direct ancestors
of modern birds, yet that, on the whole, they afford a most valuable contribution
in favour of the doctrine of evolution, approximating more and more, as we descend
in the geological scale, to reptiles, from which it may be confidently stated the
Avian class has originated.

SKELETON OF LIZARD-TAILED BIRD,

Abdimia, 309.
Aburria, 444.
Accipiter, 238.
Accipitres, 174.
Acomus, 421.
Acryllium, 434,
Adjutants, 311.
Aigialitis, 476.
Agialophilus, 477.
Aigotheles, 86.
Aina, 382.
Aipypodius, 440.
Aipyornis, 574.
_ Anyornithidx, 574.
Aeronautes, 37.
Atthurus, 25.
Ai, 356.
Agapornis, 129.
A gelastes, 432.
Albatrosses, 520.
Alca, 532.
Alcedinidx, 69.
Alcedo, 74.
Alcidz, 531.
Aleyone, 70, 75.
Alectorides, 451.
Alectrenas, 367.
Amazilia, 30.
Amazons, 121.
Ammoperdiz, 410.
Anas, 343.
Anastomus, 313.
Anatidz, 323.
Anorhinus, 68.
Anodorhynchus, 113.
Anous, 511.
Anser, 327.
Anseranas, 326.
Anseres, 323.
A ptenodytes, 546.
Apterygide, 569.
Apteryx, 570.
Aquila, 224.
adalberti, 228.
chrysaétus, 224.
clanga, 230.
heliaca, 227.
maculata, 230.
rapax, 231.
verreawuct, 231.
vindhiana, 231.
wahlbergi, 231.
Ara, 114.
Aramidx, 467.
Aramus, 467.

VOL. IV.— 37

Arboricola, 413.
Archxopteryx, 575.
Archibuteo, 236.
Ardea, 291.
Ardeidx, 290.
Ardetta, 299.
Argusianus, 429.
Asio, 150.
Astur, 240.
Asturina, 237.
Atelornis, 79.
Attagis, 505.
Auks, 531.
Great, 532.
Horn-Billed, 537.
Little, 536.
Parrot, 537.
Pigmy, 537.
True, 531.
Tufted, 537.
Avocets, 486.

Baleniceps, 303.
Balexnicipitide, 303.
Balearica, 467.
Bambusicola, 416.
Batrachostomus, 84.
Baza, 194.
Bee-Eaters, 53.
Bearded, 56.
Celebean, 56.
Square-Tailed, 54.
Swallow-Tailed, 54.
True, 55.
Berenicornis, 66.
Bernicla, 330.
Birds of Prey, 174.
Bitterns, 299.
Biziura, 357.
Black-Game, 399.
Blood-Pheasants, 417.
Boat-Bill, 301.
3oatswain, 288.
Bolborhynchus, 119.
Bonasa, 405.
300by, 282.
Botaurus, 297.
Brachyrhamphus, 536.
3romvogel, 62.
Brotogerys, 120.
Brush-Turkeys, 438.
Bubo, 166.
Bubonidx, 144.
Buceros, 63.
Bucerotidx, 60.

Bucorax, 61.
Budgerigar, 135.
Bulweria, 526.
Busarellus, 234.
Bush-Quail, 413.
Bustard-Quails, 444.
Bustards, 452.
Little, 454.
Long-Beaked, 455.
Macqueen’s, 457.
Rutfed, 457.
True, 452.
Butastur, 213.
Buteo, 234.
Buteogallus, 234.
Buzzard-Eagles, 213.
Buzzards, 234.
Common, 234.
Desert, 235.
Honey, 195.
Rough-Legged, 236.
Swainson’s, 235.
Bycanistes, 63.

Cacatua, 106.
alba, 107.
citrino-cristatus, 107.
ducorpst, 107.
galerita, 107.
leadbeateri, 107.
moluccensis, 107..
roseicapilla, 107.
sanguinea, 107.
Cacatuidx, 99.
Caccabis, 409.
Catrina, 350.
Calenas, 385.
Calidris, 496.
Callipepla, 436.
Callocephalum, 105.
Callopsittacus, 109.
Calodromus, 552.
Caloperdix, 414.
Calyptorhynchus, 105.
Camptolemus, 355.
Canachites, 402.
Canchroma, 301.
Capercaillie, 401.
Caprimulgidez, 41.
Caprimulgus, 41.
Caracaras, 247.
Brazilian, 247.
Falkland, 248.
Carancha, 247.
Cariama, 460.

Cariamidex, 460. Colius, 20. Cuculus—continued.
Carinate, 555. Collocalia, 39. sonnerati, 3.
Carine, 156. Columba, 370. Curassows, 441.
Carpococcyx, 11. Columbx, 363. Pauxi, 443.

Columbidx, 369. Curlews, 489.
Columbula, 379. Cursoriidx, 471.
Colymbidx, 5389. Cursorius, 473.
Colymbus, 539. Cyanorhamphus, 184.
Condor, 266, Cyclopsittacidx, 99.
Conures, 115. Cyclopsittacus, 99.
Cathartidxz, 265. Conuropsts, 115. Cygnus, 335.
Catheturus, 438. Conwrus, 115. Cymochorhea, 529.
Catreus, 425. Coots, 449. Cymodroma, 580.
Centrocercus, 403. Coracias, 79. Cypselidx, 35.
Centropus, 9. Coractidx, 79. Cyrtonyx, 437,
Cerecopsis, 326. Coracopsis, 125.

Cerorhyncha, 537. Corethrura, 448. Dacelo, 76.

Ceryle, 70, 72. Cormorants, 277. Dafila, 347.

Cetupa, 168. Corncrake, 447. Daption, 527.
Ceuthmochares, 10. Coryphenas, 373. Darters, 280.
Ceycopsis, 75. Corythxola, 14. Dasypterus, 125.
Ceyx, 75. Corythornis, 70, 75. Dendragapus, 403.
Chetura, 39 Cosmetorivis, 43. Dendrocygna, 339,
Chaja, 362. Cosmonetta, 352. Dendrortyx, 436.
Chalcococcyx, 5. Cotton-Teal, 339. Deroptyus, 122.
Chalcopelia, 382. Coturniz, 415. Diatryma, 555,
Chalcophaps, 382. Coua, 10. Dichoceros, 64.
Chalcopsittacus, 196. Coucals, 8. Dichracercus, 53, 54.
Chalcoptera, 383. Courlans, 467. Surcatus, 54.
Chamezpetes, 444. Coursers, 473. hirundineus, 54,
Charadriidx, 475. Black-Backed, 475. Dididez, 388.
Charadrius, 478. Cream-Coloured, 473. Diduneulidz, 387.
Chauna, 362. Cracidzx, 441. Didunculus, 387.
Chenalopex, 333. Crax, 442. Didus, 388.

Carpophaga, 367.
Cassowaries, 562, 563.
Casuariidx, 562.
Casuarius, 563.
Catharista, 272.
Cathartes, 270.

~“

Chimachima, 248.
Chimango, 247.
Chionidide, 504.
Chionis, 505.
Chrysxenas, 367.
Chrysococcyx, 6.
Chrysolophus, 427.
Chrysotis, 121.
Chunga, 461.
Ciconia, 307.
Cicontidx, 306.
Circaétus, 213.
Circus, 242.
Clangula, 352.
Cloéphaga, 332.
Cnemiornis, 327.
Coccyzus, 7.
americanus, 7.
erythrophthalmus, 7.
Cockatiel, 109.
Cockatoos, 99.
Banksian, 105.
Black, 101.
Blood-Stained, 107.
Ducorps’, 107.
Funereal, 105.
Ganga, 106.
Leadbeater’s, 107.
Raven, 105. e
Slender-Billed, 109.

Sulphur- Crested, 107.

Typical, 106.
Coceystes, 2.
coromandus, 2.
glandarius, 2.
jacobinus, 3.
Colies, 20.
Coliidx, 20.

Cranes, 463.
Common, 464.
Crowned, 467.
Sarus, 465,
True, 464.
White, 466.

Crex, 447.

Crocopus, 365.

Crossoptilum, 421.

Crotophaga, 12.
ants, 12.
major, 12.
sulcirostris, 12.

Crypturi, 551.

Crypturus, 552.

Cuckoos, 1.
American, 7.
Bronze, 5.
Bush, 10.
Common, 3.
Crested, 2.
Golden, 5.
Ground, 11.
Guira, 12.
Hawk, 3.
Pheasant, 11.
Rain, 10.
Savana, 12.
Spotted, 2.
True, 3.

Cuculide, 1.

Cuculus, 3.
canorus, 3.
clamosus, 3.
gularis, 3.
intermedius, 3.
micropterus, 3.
solitarius, 3.

Dinornithidx, 572.
Dinornis, 573.
Diomedea, 520.
Diomedeidx, 520.
Diplogena, 27.
Dissura, 309.
Divers, 539.
Diving Birds, 530.
Docimastes, 29.
Dodo, 388.
Dormibu, 46.
Dotterels, 479.
Doves, 370.
African Ground, 382.

Australian Ground, 383.

Blood-Breasted, 380.
Bronze- Winged, 383.
Cape, 382.
Cinnamon, 880.

Crested Bronze- Wing, 385.

Cuban, 381.

Harlequin, 383.
Mourning, 375.
Pencilled, 383.

Plumed Bronze-Wing, 384.

Rock, 370. ~*
Stock, 371.
Turtle, 377.
White- Winged, 377.
Wonga-Wonga, 380.
Drepanoptila, 367.
Dromxus, 566.
Dromornis, 569.
Ducks, 323.
Braminy, 342.
Buffel-Head, 352.
Comb, 339.
Dusky, 344.

Ducks—continued.
Hider, 353.
Golden-Eye, 352.
Harlequin, 352.
Labrador, 355.
Long-Tailed, 352.
Mandarin, 350.
Musk, 357.
Pintailed, 347.
Seaup, 350.
Scoter, 355.
Shoveller, 345.
Steamer, 357.
Stiff-Tailed, 356.
Summer, 350
Tree, 339.

True, 343.
Wild, 343.
Wood, 380.

Eagles, 211.
African-Crested, 215.
Bald, 207.
Bateleur, 211.
Booted, 221.
Buzzard, 213.
Crested, 217.
Golden, 224.
Harpy, 232.
Harrier, 213.
Hawk, 219.
Imperial, 227.
Sea, 204.
Serpent, 215.
Spotted, 280.
Tawny, 281.
True, 223.
Vulturine, 231.
Wahlberg’s, 231.
Wedge-Tailed, 2382.

Eclectus, 126.

Ectopistes, 373.

Egret, 296.

Eiders, 353.

Elanoides, 201.

Elanus, 196.

Emeus, 566.

Emeus, 573.

Eos, 96.

Ereunetes, 494.

Erismatura, 356.

Eudromias, 478, 479.

Eudynamis, 7.

Eudyptes, 546.

Eudyptula, 547.

Eugenes, 30.

Eulipoa, 438.

Eumomota, 52.

Eupodotis, 455.

Eupsychortyx, 437.

Euptilotis, 17.

Eurhinorhynchus, 496.

Eurypyga, 468.

Eurypygidx, 468.

Eurystomus, 79, 81.

Eutoxeres, 27.

Eutrigon, 380.

Excalfatoria, 416.

Falcipennis, 403.

Faicinellus, 318.

Falco, 176.

Falconets, 191.

I UNIONS IS

Falconidex, 175.
Falcons, 176.
Barbary, 181.
Black-Cheeked, 183.
Crested, 193.
Cuckoo, 194.
Greenland, 176.
Iceland, 179.
Laggar, 181.
Lanner, 181.
Mississippi, 192.
Norway, 179.
Peregrine, 181.
Pigmy, 191.
Red-Capped, 181.
Saker, 177.
Shahin, 182.
Tawny-Headed, 184.
True, 176.
Turumti, 185.
Finfeet, 449.
Fish-Eagles, 178.
Fish-Owls, 168, 169.
Flamingoes, 320.
Florican, 457.

Flightless Birds, 553, 555.

Francolins, 411.
Francolinus, 411.
Fratercula, 538.
Fregatidx, 287.
Fregatus, 287.
Frigate-Birds, 287.
Frog-Mouths, 84.
Eared, 84.
Owlet, 85.
Typical, 85.
Fulica, 449.
Fulicarizx, 445.
Fuligula, 356.
Fulmarus, 524.
Gadwal, 345.
Gallicrex, 448.
Gallinz, 393.
Gallinula, 448.
Gallinules, 449.
Galloperdix, 417.
Gallus, 428.
Game-Birds, 393.
Game-Fowls, 427.
Gannets, 282.
Garefowl, 532.
Gastornithide, 555.
Gastornis, 555.
Gavie, 506.
Geese, 354.
Bernicle, 330.
Brent, 330.
Cape Barron, 327.
Cereopsis, 326.
Egyptian, 333.
Half-Webbed, 326.
Knob-Winged, 333.
New Zealand, 327.
Sea, 330.
Spur-Winged, 321.
True, 327.
Upland, 333.
Gennaus, 423.
Geobiastes, 79.
Geococcyx, 11.
Geophaps, 383.
Geopsittacus, 136.

Geotrygon, 380.
Gerfalcons, 176.
Geronticus, 317.
Glarcola, 471.
Glaucidium, 154.
Glead, 198.
Globicera, 367.
Godwits, 493.
Goosander, 357.
Goshawks, 240.
Goura, 387.
Gouridx, 386.
Grebes, 542.
Thick-Billed, 545.
Typical, 542.
Grouse, 894.
American, 402.
Canadian, 402.
Dusky, 403.
Franklin’s, 402.
Red, 896.
Ruffed, 405.
Sage, 403.
Sharp-Tailed, 404.

Sharp-Winged, 403.

True, 395.
Willow, 397.

Gruidx, 463.

Grus, 464.

Guacharo, 89.

Guans, 443.

Guillemots, 534.
Short-Billed, 536.

Guinea-Fowls, 452.
Vulture-Like, 434.

Guira, 12.

Gulls, 506, 512.
Fork-Tailed, 512.
Ivory, 517.
Kittiwake, 516.
Ross’s, 512.
Typical, 512.

Guttera, 434.

Gymnopelia, 379.

Gymnophaps, 370.

Gypaétus, 251.

Gyps, 257.

Gypohterax, 202.

Hematopus, 487.
Haleyon, 77.
erythrogaster, 78.
pallidiventris, 78.
semicerulea, 78.
smyrnensis, 77.
Haicyornis, 509.
Haliaétus, 204.
albicilla, 204.
branicki, 204.
leucocephalus, 207.
leucogaster, 208.
Zeucopheus, 207.
pelagicus, 204.
vocifer, 208.
vociferoides, 208.
Haliastur, 202.
Halocypetna, 529.
IHlammer-Head, 304.
Hapalarpactes, 15.
Hapaloderma, 15, 18.
constantia 19.
narina, 18.

Se)

580

Hapaloderma—continued.

vittatum, 19.
Haplopelia, 380.
Harelda, 352.
Harpactes, 19.
Harpagornis, 232.
Harpagus, 194.
Harpyhaliaétus, 232.
Harrier-Eagles, 213.
Harriers, 242.

American, 245.

Hen, 242.

Pale-Chested, 245.

Montagu’s, 245.

Marsh, 245.

Ringtail, 242.
Hawks, 237.

Besra, 239.

Duck, 183.

Cooper’s, 239.

Harrier, 241.

Many-Zoned, 241.

Marsh, 245.

Naked-Cheeked, 246.

Pigeon, 186.

Sharp-Shinned, 2389.

Sparrow, 237.

Whistling, 241.
Hawk Tribe, 175.
Hazel-Hens, 406.
Heliactin, 33.
Heliornithidex, 449.
ITelotarsus, 211.
Hemiphaga, 367, 368.
Hemipodes, 444.
Henicognathus, 117.
Herodiones, 289.
Herons, 290.

Boat-Billed, 301.

Night, 298.

True, 291.

White, 293.
FHesperornis, 574.
Heterodactyli, 15.
Feteroglaux, 158.
Hierax, 191.
LTierococcyx, 3.
ITimantopus, 485.
FHistriophaps, 383.
Hoatzin, 444.
MWobby, 186.
Hoopoes, 57.

Wood, 59.
Hlomopelia, 377, 378.
Honey-Buzzard, 195.
Loplopterus, 483.
Hornbills, 60.

Ground, 61.

Pied, 64.

Rhinoceros, 63.

Solid-Billed, 68.

Trumpeter, 63.

Wedge-Tailed, 66
ITubara, 457.
Humming-Birds, 21.

Coquette, 34.

Double-Crested, 33.

Fork-Tailed, 27.

Giant, 32.

Hermit, 28.

Hill-Star, 30.

Jamaican, 25.

INDEX.

Humming-Birds—continued.

King, 30.
Racket-Tailed, 32.
Rivoli, 30.
Saw-Beaked, 25.
Smooth-Beaked, 27.
Sword-Bill, 29.
White-Crowned, 26.
Hydrochelidon, 509.
Hydrophasianus, 504.
Hydropsalis, 45.
Hydrornis, 520.
Hyetornis, 10.
Hylomanes, 51.

Tbidorhynchus, 489.
Ibis, 316.
Ibises, 316.
Shield, 313.
Ibycter, 248.
Ichthyornis, 574.
Ictinia, 192.
Inypennes, 545.
Trrisor, 59.
Trrisoridx, 59.
Tspidina, 75.
Ithagenes, 417.

Jabirus, 310.
Jacanas, 503.
Jungle-Fowl, 428.

Kagus, 468.

Kaka, 93.

Kalij, 423.

Kea, 93.

Kestrels, 188.

Kingfishers, 69.
Hook-Billed, 77.
Insectivorous, 75.
Laughing, 76.
Long-Tailed, 78.
Pied, 72.
Stork-Billed, 70.
Three-Toed, 75.
Typical, 74.
Wood, 77.

Kiroumbos, 82.

Kites, 196.
Black- Winged, 196.
Govind, 201.
Swallow-Tailed, 201.
True, 198.

Kittiwakes, 516.

Kiwis, 569.

Knot, 496.

Koels, 7.

Koklass, 423.

Lagopus, 395.
Lammergeiers, 251.
Lamprotreron, 367.
Lapwings, 480.
Egyptian, 482.
Four-Toed, 481.
Three-Toed, 482.
Wattled, 484.
Larus, 512.
Leptoptila, 380.
Leptoptilus, 311.
Leptosoma, 82.
Leptosomatide, 82.

Lerwa, 406.
Lesbia, 27, 33.
Leucosarcia, 380.
Leucotreron, 366.
Lichmetis, 109.
Limicolx, 470.
Limosa, 493.
Lizard-Tailed Birds, 575.
Lobivanellus, 484.
Lobiophasis, 421.
Loddigesia, 32.
Lophoaétus, 215.
Lophoceros, 63, 66.
Lophogyps, 261.
Lophophaps, 384.
Lophophorus, 419.
Lophornis, 34.
Lophortyx, 437.
Lophura, 421.
Loriculus, 131.

‘Lories, 96.

Loriidx, 96.
Loriquets, 97.
Lorius, 96.
Love-Birds, 128.
Lyrurus, 399.

Macaws, 113.
Blue and Yellow, 114.
Hyacinthine, 113.
Military, 115.
Red and Blue, 114.
Spix’s, 114.
True, 114.
Machetes, 493.
Macrodipteryx, 43.
Macropteryx, 40.
Macropygia, 373.
Majaqueus, 526.
Mateo, 440.
Malkohas, 11.
Mallard, 344.
Mareca, 349.
Margaroperdix, 413.
Martineta, 552.
Megacephalum. 440.
Megapodes, 437.
Megapodiidex, 487.
Megapodius, 438.
Melanoperdizx, 415.
Melopsittacus, 135.
Meleagris, 435.
Melidora, 77.
Melierax, 241.
Melittophagus, 53, 54.
albifrons, 54.
pusillus, 54.
swinhoet, 54.
Melopelia, 377.
Melopsittacus, 135.
Mergansers, 357.
Mergulus, 536.
Mergus, 357.
Merlin, 186.
Meropidx, 53.
Merops, 55.
apiaster, 55.
bicolor, 55.
breveri, 55.
cyanophrys, 55.
muscatensis, 55.
ornatus, 55.

Mercps—continued.
persicus, 5d.
philippinus, 55.
sumatranus, 55.
viridis, 55.

Mesites, 468.

Mesopogon, 53, 56.

Micrastur, 242.

Microchera, 26.

Microglossus, 101.

Microperdix, 418.

Micropodidx, 35.

Micropus, 35.
africanus, 35.
apus, 37.
melba 35.
murinus, 37.

Milvus, 198.
zgyptius, 200.
govinda, 201.
ictinus, 198.
melanotis, 201.
migrans, 199.

Mituas, 442.

Moas, 572.

Momotidz, 50.

Momotus, 51.

Monals, 419.

Moor-Buzzard, 245.

Morococcyx, 11.

Morphnus, 232.

Motmots, 50.
Broad-Beaked, 52.
True, 51.

Musophagidx, 13.

Mycteria, 310.

Myioceyx, 75.

Muyopsittacus, 117.

Muyristicivora, 369.

Nanodes, 135.
Nasiterna, 112.
Nauclerus, 202.
Neomorphus, 11.
Neophema, 123.
Neophron, 261.
Neopsittacus, 99.
Nesopelia, 377
Nestor, 93.
Nestoridz, 93.
Nettapus, 339.
Night-Herons, 298.
Nightjars, 41.
Fork-Tailed, 44.
Leona, 43.
Nacunda, 46.
Standard-Winged, 43.
True, 41.
Wood, 47.
Ninox, 155.
Nippenoa, 316.
Nisaétus, 220.
Noddies, 511.
Nothocrax, 442.
Nothura, 552.
Notornis, 449.
Numenius, 489.
Numida, 433.
Nyciala, 144.
Nyctea, 162.
Nyctibius, 48.
Nycticorax, 298.

LNDEX.

Tyctiornis, 53, 56.
Nymphicus, 135.

Oceanites, 530.
Oceanodroma, 529.
Ocydromus, 447.
Ocyphaps, 385.
Odontoglossi, 320.
Odontornithes, 574.
Edemia, 355.
Edicnemidex, 458.
(Edicnemus, 458.
(Estrelata, 526.
Oil-Bird, 89.
Ophrysia, 417.
Opisthocomus, 444.
Oreophasis, 443.
Oreopsittacus, 99.
Oreortyx, 433.
Oreotrochilus, 30.
adelx, 31.
chimborazo, 31.
estellx, 31.
leucopleurus, 31.
melanogaster, 31.
pichincha, 31.
Ortholophus, 66.
Ortyx, 437.
Osmotreron, 366.
Osprey, 170.
Ossifraga, 522.
Ostriches, 556.
American, 560.
Otididex, 452.
Otidiphaps, 381.
Otis, 452.
Otogyps, 259.
Owlets, 154, 159.
Owl-Parrot, 137.
Owls, 140.
Acadian, 144,
Barn, 142.
Barred, 149.
Brown, 145.
Burrowing, 156.
Eagle, 165.
Eared, 150.
Fish, 168, 169.
Grass, 144.
Great Grey, 147.
Hawk, 155, 160.
Lapp, 147.
Little, 158.
Long-Eared, 152.
Mottled Wood, 149.
Pigmy, 154.
Scops, 164.
Screech, 164.
Short-Eared, 151.
Snowy, 162.
Tawny, 146.
Tengmalm’s, 144.
Ural, 148.
Wood, 145.
Oyster-Catchers, 487.

Pachyornis, 573.
Pxocephalus, 123.
Pagodroma, 525.
Painted Snipe, 496.
Palzxlodus, 323.
Palxornis, 127.

Palanedea, 361.
Palamedex, 360.
Palamedeidx, 360.
Pandion, 170.
Pandiones, 170
Pandionidx, 170.
Panyptila, 38.
Parraquets, 119, 125.
All-Green, 120.
Blossom-Headed, 127.
Crested, 135.
Grass, 133.
Grey-Breasted, 119.
Ground, 136.
Ring-Necked, 127.
Shght-Billed, 119.
True, 127.
Uvean, 135.
Parra, 503.
Parridz, 503.
Parrotlets, 119.
Parrots, 91.
Amazon, 121.
Arfak, 99.
Blunt-Tailed, 120.
Brown-Headed, 123.
Broad-Tail, 132, 133.
Budgerigar, 135.
Eclectus, 126.
Green, 123.
Grey, 123.
Hanging, 130.
Hawk-Billed. 122,
Tris, 99.
Jardine’s, 123.
Kaka, 93.
Kakapo, 137.
Kea, 93.
Levaillant’s 123.
Nestor, 93.
New Guinea Black, 123.
Norfolk Island, 94
Owl, 137.
Pigmy, 111.
Philip Island, 94.
Sharp-Tailed, 112.
Short-Tailed, 123.
Typical, 111.
Vasa, 125.
Partridges, 409.
American, 436.
Bonham’s 410.
Madagascar, 413.
Mountain, 436.
Red-Legged, 409.
Sealed, 436.
Snow, 406.
Tree, 413.
True, 411.
Wood, 414.
Patagona, 32.
Pauais, 443.
Pawo, 431.
Peacock-Pheasants, 429.
Peafowl, 431.
Pedicula, 413.
Pediocetes, 404.
Pedionomus, 445.
Pelargopsis, 70.
Pelecanidx, 284.
Pelecanoides, 550.
Pelecanus, 284.

581

582

Pelicans, 284.
Penelope, 443.
Penelopides, 63.
Penguins, 545.
Perdix, 411.
Peristeridzx, 375.
Pernis, 195.

Petrels, 522.
Bulwer’s, 526.
Cape, 527.
Capped, 526.
Diving, 530.
Dove, 528.
Fork-Tailed, 529.
Fulmar, 524.
Giant, 522.
Leach’s, 529.
Silver-Grey, 525.
Snow, 525.
Storm, 528.
Wedge-Tailed, 529.
White-Bellied, 530.
Wilson’s, 530.

Petrophassa, 383.

Pezophaps, 389.

Pezoporus, 136.

Phabotreron, 366.

Phenicopteridx, 320.

Phenicopterus, 321.

Phaéthon, 288.

Phaéthontidz, 288.

Phaéthorirvis, 28.

Phalacrocoracidx, 277.

Phalacrocorax, 278.

Phalaropes, 491.

Phalaropus, 491.

Phaps, 383.

Pharomacrus, 16.

Phasianidx, 406.

Phasianus, 425.

Phasidus, 432.

Pheasants, 421.
Amherst’s, 427.
Argus, 429.
Blood, 417.
Bulwer’s, 421.
Chir, 425.
Eared, 421.
Fire-Backed, 421.
Golden, 427.
Kalij, 423.
Koklass, 423.
Peacock, 427.
Swinhoe’s, 423.
True, 425.

Phegornis, 496.

Philortyx, 437.

Pheiicophxine, 10.

Phiogxnas, 380.

Phororhachide, 554.

Phororhachis, 554.

Pigeons, 363.
Crowned, 386.
Cuckoo, 373.
Fruit, 367.
Galapagos, 377.
Green, 364.
Ground, 375.
Long-Tailed, 373.
Nicobar, 385.
Nutmeg, 368.
Painted, 366.

INDEX.

Pigeons—continued.
Passenger, 373.
Tooth-Billed, 386.
Walia, 365.
Wart, 367.
Wedge-Tailed, 364.

Plantain-Katers, 13.
Crimson- Winged, 13.
Giant, 14.

Platalea, 319.

Plataleidz, 315.

Platycercus, 133.

Plectropterus, 324.

Plotus, 280.

Plovers, 470, 475.
Golden, 479.
Kentish, 477.
Ringed, 476.
Sand, 477.

True, 478.
Pluvianus, 475.
Pochards, 350.
Podager, 46.
Podargidx, 83.
Podargus, 84.

Podica, 449.

| Podicipedidx, 542.

Podicipes, 542.
Podilymbus, 545.
Polioaétus, 173.
Polyboroides, 246.
Polyborus, 247.
Polyplectrum, 429.
Porphyrio, 449.
Prairie-Hens, 403.
Pratincoles, 471.
Prianotelus, 17.
Prion, 528.
Procellaria, 528.
Procellariidx, 522.
Pseudogyps, 259.
Pseudotantalus, 315.
Psittact, 91.
Psittacidx, 111.
Psittacuia, 120.
Psittacus, 123.
Psophia, 462.
Psophiidx, 462.
Ptarmigan, 395.
Pternistes, 411.
Pterocles, 390.
Pteroclidx, 389.
Pteroclurus, 391.
Ptilopachys, 416.
Ptilopus, 366.
Pucrasia, 424.
Puffins, 538.
Puffinus, 526.
Pygopodes, 530.
Pygoscelis, 546.

(Quails, 415.
American, 437.
Californian, 437.

Querquedula, 348.

Quezal, 16.

Rails, 445.
Carolina, 447.
Pigmy, 448,
True, 446.
Weka, 447.

Dallus, 446.
Reatitx, 555.
Razorbill, 533.
Lecurvirostra, 486.
Reeves, 493.
Reinhardius, 431.
Reinwardtenas, 373.
rhea, 560.
Rheidx, 560.
Lthinochatidx, 468.
thinochetus, 468.
Rhinogryphus, 273.
Rhinoplax, 68.
Rhodostethia, 512.
Rhopodytes, 11.
Rhynchea, 497.
Rhynchops, 512.
Rhynchotus, 552.
Rissa, 516.
Road-Runner, 11.

Rollers, 79.

Broad-Billed, 81.
Drue; 79:
Rollulus, 414.
Rotche, 536.
Rufls, 493.

Sanderling, 496.
Sand-Grouse, 389.
Black-Bellied, 390.
Common, 3892.
Pallas’s, 390.
Pin-Tailed, 391.
Sandpipers, 492, 494.
Cleft-Footed, 496.
Hard-Billed, 492.
Snipe-Beaked, 494.
Sappho, 27.
Sarcidiornis, 359.
Sarctophorus, 484.
Sarcorhampus, 266.
Saurure, 575.
Saurothera, 10
Scolopax, 498
Scopidex, 304,
Scopus, 304.
Scops, 164.
Scoters, 355.
Scotopelia, 169.
Scotornis, 45.
Screamers, 360.
Sea-Eagles, 204.
Vulturine, 202.
Secretary Vulture, 263.
Seed-Snipe, 505.
Seriemas, 460.
Serpentariidx, 263.
Serpentarius, 263.
Serresius, 367.
Shearwaters, 526.
Sheath-Bills, 504.
Sheldrakes, 340.
Common, 341.
Ruddy, 342.
Simorhynchus, 537.
Skimmers, 511.
Skuas, 517.
Snake-Birds, 280.
Snipe, 497.
Aberrant, 500.
Painted, 496.
Seed, 505.

Snipe—continued.
Typical, 501.
Snow-Cocks, 406.

Snow-Partridges, 406.

Solitaire, 389.

Somateria, 353.

Son of the Sun, 287.

Sparrow-Hawks, 237.

Spatula, 345.

Speotito, 156.

Spheniscidz, 546.

Spheniscus, 546.

Sphenocercus, 364.

Sptlopelia, 377, 379.

Spilornis, 215.

Spizaétus, 217.

Spoonbiils, 319.

Spur-Fowl, 416.

Steatornithidx, 89.

Steatornis, 89.

Steganopodes, 276.

Stercorartidz, 517.

Stercorarius, 517.

Stereornithes, 553.

Sterna, 510.

Stiginatopelia, 877, 379.

Stilts, 484.

Storks, 306.
Adjutant, 311.
Black, 309.
Giant, 310.
Maguari, 309.
Marabou, 311.
Shell, 313.

True, 307.

White, 307.
White-Bellied, 309.
Wood, 314.

Strepsilas, 494.

Streptopelia, 377, 378.

Striges, 140.

Strigidx, 142.

Stringopidx, 137.

Stringops, 137.

Strix, 142.

Struthio, 557.

Struthionidx, 556.

Sturnenas, 381.

Sula, 282.

Sun-Bittern, 468.

Surnia, 160.

Swans, 334.
American, 337.
Bewick’s, 336.
Black, 338.
Black-Necked, 338.
Fossil, 339.
Mute, 337.
Whistling, 335.

Swifts, 35.

Alpine, 35.
Common, 37.
Edible, 39.
Feather-Toed, 38.
Pied, 37.

INDEX.

Swifts—continued.
Salvin’s, 38.
Tree, 40.

True, 35.
Synexcus, 416.
Sypheotides, 457.
Syrnium, 146.

aluco, 146.

cinereum, 147.

Suscescens, 149.

tindiant, 149.

lapponicum, 147.

leptogrammicum, 149.

nebulosum, 149.

newarense, 150.

ocellatum, 149.

uralense, 148.
Syrrhaptes, 390.

Tachyeres, 357.
Tadorna, 340.
Tallegallus, 438.
Tantalus, 315.
Tanysiptera, 79.
Teal, 348.
Cotton, 339.
Whistling, 339.
Terns, 509.
Teru-Teru, 482.
Tetrao, 401.
Tetraogallus, 409.
Tetraonidex, 394.
Tetraophasis, 409.
Tetrapteryz, 466.
Tetrastes, 406.
Thalassoica, 525.
Thicknees, 458.
Thinocoridx, 504.
Thinocorus, 505.
Thrysaétus, 232.
Tinamotis, 552.
Tinamus, 552.
Tinamus, 551.
Tmetotrogon, 17.
Todidzx, 48.
Todies, 48.
Todus, 48.
Toothed Birds, 574.
Topaza, 30.
Totanus, 493.
Tragopan, 418.
Treron, 566.
Trerovidx, 364.
Tribonyx, 448.
Trichoglossus, 97.
Tringa, 496.
Trochilidx, 21.
Trochilus, 30.
Trogon, 15, 17.
Trogonidz, 15.
Trogons, 15.
African, 18.
Indian, 19.
Long-Tailed, 15.
Narina, 18.

MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH.

Trogons—continued.
piries sle7e
Tropic-Birds, 288.
Trumpeter-Hornbills, 63.
Trumpeters, 462.
Tube-Nosed Birds, 519.
Tubinares, 519.
Turacenas, 373.
Turacus, 13.
Turkeys, 435.
Turnicide, 444.
Turnizx, 445.
Turnstones, 494.
Turquoisine, 183.
Turtur, 377.
Tympanistria, 382.
Tympanuchus, 403.

Upupa, 57.
epops, 57.
indica, 57.

Upupide, 57.

Uria, 534.

Uroaétus, 232.

Urobitinga, 234.

Urospizias, 237.

Vanellus, 481.

Vinago, 365.

Vultur, 253.

Vultures, 250.
Abyssinian, 261.
American, 265.
American, Black, 270.
Black, 253.
Californian, 275.
Cinereous, 253.
Condor, 266.
Eared, 259.
Egyptian, 261.
Griffon, 257.

King, 270.

Pileated, 262.

Pondicherry, 260.

Secretary, 263.

Turkey, 273.

White-Backed, 259.
Vulturidx, 250.
Vulturine Sea-Eagle, 202.

Water-Hens, 448.
Water-Pheasants, 504.
Whale-Headed Stork, 303.
Whimbrels, 489.
Whip-Poor-Will, 43.
Windhover, 188.

Wigeon, 349.

Woodcock, 497, 498.

W ood-Hoopoes, 59.

Xema, 512.
Xenorhynchus, 310.

Zenaida, 376.
Zenaidura, 375.

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